Wetlands in temperate ecoregions

– Case studies  –

Hundreds, if not thousands, of recently published papers are dealing with the impact of Climate Change on freshwater ecosystems.

Here you find summaries of a few hundred papers, which we consider as most relevant.

• Wetlands in general

  • Model: Acidification, release (wetlands) / Aherne, J., Futter, M. N., Dillon, P. J. (200 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group
    Indicator	Model: Acidification, release (wetlands)

    Reference

    Aherne, J., Futter, M. N., Dillon, P. J. (2008): The impacts of future climate change and sulphur emission reductions on acidification recovery at Plastic Lake, Ontario . Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Special Issue (Eurolimpacs) 12: 383-392.

    Description

    Climate-induced drought events have a significant influence on sulphate export from forested catchments in central Ontario, subsequently delaying the recovery of surface waters from acidification. In the current study, a model chain that employed a statistical downscaling model, a hydrological model and two hydrochemical models was used to forecast the chemical recovery of Plastic Lake sub-catchment 1 (PC1) from acidification under proposed deposition reductions and the A2 emission scenario of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Any predicted recovery in stream acid neutralising capacity and pH owing to deposition reductions were clearly offset by large acid effluxes from climate induced drought events. By 2100, ANC is predicted to show large variations ranging between 10-30μmolc L^-1. Similarly, predicted pH in 2100 is lower (>0.05 of a pH unit) than the value simulated for 2000 (pH 4.35). Despite emission reductions, the future scenario paints a bleak picture of reacidification at PC1 to levels commensurate with those of the late 1970s. The principal process behind this reacidification is the oxidation of previously stored (reduced) sulphur compounds in wetlands during periods of low-flow (or drought), with subsequent efflux of sulphate upon rewetting. Simulated catchment runoff under the A2 emissions scenario predictes increased intensity and frequency of lowflow events from approximately 2030 onwards. The Integrated Catchments model for Carbon indicated that stream DOC concentrations at PC1 will also increase under the future climate scenario, with temperature being the principal driver. Despite the predicted (significant) increase in DOC, pH is not predicted to further decline (beyond the climate induced oxidation scenario), instead pH shows greater variability throughout the simulation. As echoed by many recent studies, hydrochemical models and model frameworks need to incorporate the drivers and mechanisms (at appropriate time-scales) that affect the key biogeochemical processes to reliably predict the impacts of climate change.

• Abiotic incidators

  • Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention) / Fenner N., Freeman, C. & B. Reynolds (200 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention)

    Reference

    Fenner N., Freeman, C. & B. Reynolds (2005): Observations of a seasonally shifting thermal optimum in peatland carbon-cycling processes; implications for the global carbon cycle and soil enzyme methodologies. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 37(10): 1814-1821.

    Description

    A thermal optimum was observed in the peat where maximum carbon-cycling enzyme activities (phenol oxidase and beta-glucosidase), phenolic compound concentrations, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations and microbial respiration CO₂ efflux) were all found in a given season. The thermal optimum for these carbon-cycling processes coincided with the highest ambient soil temperature recorded at the time of peat collection, suggesting microbial acclimation to the external conditions. We propose, therefore, that the relative activities of these enzymes is crucial in mobilising DOC from the peat matrix, with implications for carbon exports to the receiving waters and CO₂ efflux to the atmosphere.

  • Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention) / Maurice, P.A., S.E. Cabaniss, J. Drummond &am ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention)

    Reference

    Maurice, P.A., S.E. Cabaniss, J. Drummond & E. Ito (2002): Hydrogeochemical controls on the variations in chemical characteristics of natural organic matter at a small freshwater wetland. Chemical Geology 187(1): 259-277.

    Description

    Relation of DOC to predominant water source (soil pore water or ground water discharge). Hydrology effect: attenuation of UV radiation; photoaggregation and photodegradation of organic matter. Suspended and dissolved organic matter -> UV light attenuation. Found that hydrology influences fate or organic matter, which relates to changes with climate in UV attenuation.

  • Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention) / Fenner, N., C. Freeman, S. Hughes & B. Re ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention)

    Reference

    Fenner, N., C. Freeman, S. Hughes & B. Reynolds (2001): Molecular weight spectra of dissolved organic carbon in a rewetted Welsh peatland and possible implications for water quality. Soil Use and Management 17(2): 106-112.

    Description

    Hydrology: provision of DOC and Fe to pore water. Drought: release of DOC and Fe to pore water on rewetting. These findings suggest that rewetting of peatland following drought (e.g, due to climate change) has the potential to reduce water quality.

  • Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention) / Carroll P. & P. Crill (1997): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention)

    Reference

    Carroll P. & P. Crill (1997): Carbon balance of a temperate poor fen. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 11(3): 349-356.

    Description

    Net ecosystem carbon exchange rates ranged from -192 to 492 mg C m^-2 h^-1 and the ecosystem respiration measurements were between -10 and -365 mg C m^-2 h^-1. Negative values represent loss of carbon from the system. Results of the carbon balance model suggest that the wetland lost an estimated 145 g C m^-2 for the 9 month modelling period (April through December). The 1994 climate season was warmer (+1.15 ° C/month) and drier (-12.3 cm) than the 30 year normals.

  • Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention) / Euliss, N.H., R.A. Gleason, A. Olness, R.L. ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention)

    Reference

    Euliss, N.H., R.A. Gleason, A. Olness, R.L. McDougal, H.R. Murkin, R.D. Robarts, R.A. Bourbonniere & B.G. Warner (2006): North American prairie wetlands are important nonforested land-based carbon storage sites. Science of the Total Environment 361(1-3): 179-188.

    Description

    Agricultural conversion has resulted in the average loss of 10.1 Mg ha^-1 of soil organic carbon on over 16 million ha of wetlands in this region. Wetland restoration has potential to sequester 378 Tg of organic carbon over a 10-year period. Wetlands can sequester over twice the organic carbon as no-till cropland on only about 17% of the total land area in the region. We estimate that wetland restoration has potential to offset 2.4% of the annual fossil CO₂ emission reported for North America in 1990.

  • Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention), salinity / Waiser, M.J. (2006): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention), salinity

    Reference

    Waiser, M.J. (2006): Relationship between hydrological characteristics and dissolved organic carbon concentration and mass in northern prairie wetlands using a conservative tracer approach. Journal of Geophysical Research-Biogeosciences 111: G02024.

    Description

    Saline ponds appeared to experience net seasonal removal of DOC. Possible mechanisms: infiltration to the pond margin, bacterial utilization, and photolysis. Freshwater ponds, which lost most of their water by infiltration to the pond margin, displayed less seasonal variation in DOC concentrations: relationship between DOC and chloride ion was not as strong as in the saline ponds; the slope of this relationship was always > 1, as were DOC: chloride ratios. These data indicated that although DOC was being lost to the pond margin as water infiltrated, freshwater ponds accumulated DOC seasonally. Decomposition and excretion of DOC by macrophytes, as well as by pelagic and attached phytoplankton, are the likely within pond sources of DOC here. The rapid response of these small, shallow aquatic systems to water loss make them ideal microcosms in which to study effects of climate on DOC concentrations and other water chemistry parameters.

  • Model: DOC (release/retention) / Futter, M.N., Butterfield, D., Cosby, B.J., D ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Model: DOC (release/retention)

    Reference

    Futter, M.N., Butterfield, D., Cosby, B.J., Dillon, P.J., Wade, A.J., Whitehead, P.G. (2007): Modelling the mechanisms that control in-stream dissolved organic carbon dynamics in upland and forested catchments. Water Resources Research 43: 42370.

    Description

    We present a new, process-based model of soil and stream water dissolved organic carbon (DOC): the Integrated Catchments Model for Carbon (INCA-C). INCA-C is the first model of DOC cycling to explicitly include effects of different land cover types, hydrological flow paths, in-soil carbon biogeochemistry, and surface water processes on in-stream DOC concentrations. It can be calibrated using only routinely available monitoring data. INCA-C simulates daily DOC concentrations over a period of years to decades. Sources, sinks, and transformation of solid and dissolved organic carbon in peat and forest soils, wetlands, and streams as well as organic carbon mineralization in stream waters are modeled. INCA-C is designed to be applied to natural and seminatural forested and peat-dominated catchments in boreal and temperate regions. Simulations at two forested catchments showed that seasonal and interannual patterns of DOC concentration could be modeled using climate-related parameters alone. A sensitivity analysis showed that model predictions were dependent on the mass of organic carbon in the soil and that in-soil process rates were dependent on soil moisture status. Sensitive rate coefficients in the model included those for organic carbon sorption and desorption and DOC mineralization in the soil. The model was also sensitive to the amount of litter fall. Our results show the importance of climate variability in controlling surface water DOC concentrations and suggest the need for further research on the mechanisms controlling production and consumption of DOC in soils.

  • N-/C-flux / Austnes, K., Kaste, Ø., Vestgarden, L. ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux

    Reference

    Austnes, K., Kaste, Ø., Vestgarden, L. S., Mulder, J.(2008): Manipulation of snow in small headwater catchments at Storgama, Norway: Effects on leaching of total organic carbon and total organic nitrogen. Ambio 37(1): 38-47.

    Description

    Projected increases in winter temperature due to future climate change may cause decreased snow accumulation at lower and intermediate altitudes in northern temperate regions. The resulting changes in soil temperature and water regime may affect the leaching of total organic carbon (TOC) and total organic nitrogen (TON). We manipulated the snow cover of small headwater catchments in a montane heathland area of southern Norway to quantify its effect on concentrations and fluxes of TOC and TON in runoff. Manipulations included snow removal, to promote soil frost, and insulation, to prevent soil frost. Snow removal resulted in increased TOC and TON concentrations, but decreased fluxes. Insulation caused a slight decrease in concentrations and fluxes of TOC. Our experiments show that a change in snow depth, and thus soil temperature, is not likely to have serious effects on TOC and TON leaching in the montane heathland area studied.

  • N-/C-flux / Haaland, S., Austnes, K., Kaste, Ø., M ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux

    Reference

    Haaland, S., Austnes, K., Kaste, Ø., Mulder, J., Riise, G., Vestgarden, L. S., Stuanes, A. O. (2008): Manipulation of precipitation in small headwater catchments at Storgama, Norway: Effects on leaching of organic carbon and nitrogen species. Ambio 37(1): 48-55.

    Description

    Projected changes in climate in Southern Norway include increases in summer and autumn precipitation. This may affect leaching of dissolved organic matter (DOM) from soils. Effects of experimentally added extra precipitation (10 mm week^-1) during the growing season of 3 years (2004-2006) to small headwater catchments at Storgama (59°0′N, 550-600 m a.s.l.) on leaching of total organic carbon (TOC) and total organic nitrogen (TON) were assessed. Extra precipitation did not have a significant effect on average TOC and TON concentrations in runoff. Thus, fluxes of TOC and TON increased nearly proportionally with water fluxes. This suggests that a store of adsorbed and potentially mobile TOC and TON in catchment soils buffers the concentration of DOM in runoff. The size and dynamics of the pool of TOC and TON depends on the balance between production and leaching rates. Infrequent short droughts had only small effects on TOC and TON fluxes in runoff from the reference catchments.

  • N-/C-flux / Austnes, K., Kaste, Ø., Vestgarden, L. ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux

    Reference

    Austnes, K., Kaste, Ø., Vestgarden, L. S., Mulder, J.(2008): Manipulation of snow in small headwater catchments at Storgama, Norway: Effects on leaching of total organic carbon and total organic nitrogen. Ambio 37(1): 38-47.

    Description

    Projected increases in winter temperature due to future climate change may cause decreased snow accumulation at lower and intermediate altitudes in northern temperate regions. The resulting changes in soil temperature and water regime may affect the leaching of total organic carbon (TOC) and total organic nitrogen (TON). We manipulated the snow cover of small headwater catchments in a montane heathland area of southern Norway to quantify its effect on concentrations and fluxes of TOC and TON in runoff. Manipulations included snow removal, to promote soil frost, and insulation, to prevent soil frost. Snow removal resulted in increased TOC and TON concentrations, but decreased fluxes. Insulation caused a slight decrease in concentrations and fluxes of TOC. Our experiments show that a change in snow depth, and thus soil temperature, is not likely to have serious effects on TOC and TON leaching in the montane heathland area studied.

  • N-/C-flux / Haaland, S., Austnes, K., Kaste, Ø., M ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux

    Reference

    Haaland, S., Austnes, K., Kaste, Ø., Mulder, J., Riise, G., Vestgarden, L. S., Stuanes, A. O. (2008): Manipulation of precipitation in small headwater catchments at Storgama, Norway: Effects on leaching of organic carbon and nitrogen species. Ambio 37(1): 48-55.

    Description

    Projected changes in climate in Southern Norway include increases in summer and autumn precipitation. This may affect leaching of dissolved organic matter (DOM) from soils. Effects of experimentally added extra precipitation (10 mm week^-1) during the growing season of 3 years (2004-2006) to small headwater catchments at Storgama (59°0′N, 550-600 m a.s.l.) on leaching of total organic carbon (TOC) and total organic nitrogen (TON) were assessed. Extra precipitation did not have a significant effect on average TOC and TON concentrations in runoff. Thus, fluxes of TOC and TON increased nearly proportionally with water fluxes. This suggests that a store of adsorbed and potentially mobile TOC and TON in catchment soils buffers the concentration of DOM in runoff. The size and dynamics of the pool of TOC and TON depends on the balance between production and leaching rates. Infrequent short droughts had only small effects on TOC and TON fluxes in runoff from the reference catchments.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Christensen, T.R., N. Panikov, M. Mastepanov, ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Christensen, T.R., N. Panikov, M. Mastepanov, A. Joabsson, A. Stewart, M. Öquist, M. Sommerkorn, S. Reynaud & B. Svensson (2003): Biotic controls on CO₂ and CH₄ exchange in wetlands - a closed environment study. Biogeochemistry 64: 337-354.

    Description

    Direct incfluence of amount of vascular plants on methane emission. This experimental setup presented may be used for further understanding of possible feedback effects on climate change.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Davidson, E.A. & P. Artaxo (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Davidson, E.A. & P. Artaxo (2004): Globally significant changes in biological processes of the Amazon Basin: results of the large-scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment. Global Change Biology 10: 519-529.

    Description

    Abiotic incidators:Reduced precipitation. Drought, reduced evapo-transpiration, increased fire susceptability, decreased leaf area, feedback on evapo-transpiration. Change in ratio of annual sinks of atmospheric carbon dioxide (intact forest) to annual sources of atmospheric methane and nitrous oxide (wetlands). Amazonian forest-river system currently nearly balanced in terms of the net 100-year global warming potential of these gases.

    Primary Production: Plants Drought: Proportional loss of native species and influx of invasives; move towards dicotyledonous species. Drought and fire may increase in frequency and severity because of global warming. Two years after burns and transplantations upslope, dicotyledonous species' density and richness increased 3- to 36-fold on soil blocks moved upslope to the driest vegetation zone relative to unmoved soil blocks. Eurasian species, Sonchus arvensis and Cirsium arvense, increased 5- to 13-fold after drought treatment. Fire, particularly the deepest burn, reduced graminoid density and height up to 90%. It is hypothesized that, under climate change conditions, Eurasian species might dominate early successional communities in mid-boreal wetlands.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Moore, T.R., N.T. Roulet & J.M. Waddingto ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Moore, T.R., N.T. Roulet & J.M. Waddington (1998): Uncertainty in predicting the effect of climatic change on the carbon cycling of Canadian peatlands. Climatic Change 40: 229-245.

    Description

    Increases in mean annual temperature 2-6 °C (most pronounced during winter). Increased carbon dioxide uptake by plants. 0-15% increase in mean annual precipitation. Lowered water tables, decreased methane emissions.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Werner, C., K. Davis, P. Bakwin, C. Yi, D. Hu ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Werner, C., K. Davis, P. Bakwin, C. Yi, D. Hurst & L. Lock (2003): Regional-scale measurements of CH₄ exchange from a tall tower over a mixed temperate/boreal lowland and wetland forest. Global Change Biology 9(9): 1251-1261.

    Description

    Seasonal and interannual temperature variation: Maximum soil temperatures coincide with maximum CH₄ emission values. Reduced precipitation: Reduced water table levels suppressed CH₄ emissions. Long-term climatic changes reducing water table may transform this landscape to reduced emission or sink for atmospheric CH₄.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Thuiller, W., S. Lavorel & M.B Araujo (20 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Thuiller, W., S. Lavorel & M.B Araujo (2005): Niche properties and geographical extent as predictors of species sensitivity to climate change. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 14(4): 347-357.

    Description

    Niche properties are a good indicator of species sensitivities to climate change. Review of temperature effects on niche as indicators of potential species survival. Macrophytes: emissons of CH₄. Direct link between coverage of macrophytes and ebullition of CH₄.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Paul, S., K. Kusel & C. Alewell (2006): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Paul, S., K. Kusel & C. Alewell (2006): Reduction processes in forest wetlands: Tracking down heterogeneity of source/sink functions with a combination of methods. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 38(5): 1028-1039.

    Description

    Water balance effect: Potential differences in sequential reduction processes and their source/sink function for sulphate, nitrate and CH₄. Differences in biogeochemical processes between sites are most probably not associated with hydrology but rather with the role of vascular plants.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Ullah, S., G.A. Breitenbeck & S.P. Faulkn ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Ullah, S., G.A. Breitenbeck & S.P. Faulkner (2005): Denitrification and N₂O emission from forested and cultivated alluvial clay soil. Biogeochemistry 73(3): 499-513.

    Description

    Flooding effect: rate of N₂O emissions under different % soil saturation. N₂O:N₂ emission ratios declined more rapidly in forested soil as saturation increased. The findings suggest that restoration of forested wetlands to reduce NO₃ in surface discharge will not contribute significantly to the atmospheric burden of N₂O.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Walter, B.P., M. Heimann & E. Matthews (2 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Walter, B.P., M. Heimann & E. Matthews (2001): Modeling modern methane emissions from natural wetlands 1. Model description and results. Journal of Geophysical Reseach - Atmospheres 106(D24): 34189-34206.

    Description

    The global methane-hydrology model constitutes a tool to study temporal and spatial variations in methane emissions from natural wetlands. To investigate the response of methane emissions from natural wetlands to climate variations, a process-based model that derives methane emissions from natural wetlands as a function of soil temperature, water table, and net primary productivity is used. We calculate global annual methane emissions from wetlands to be 260 Tg yr^-1. Twenty-five percent of these methane emissions originate from wetlands north of 30 °N. Only 60% of the produced methane is emitted, while the rest is reoxidized.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Brix, H., B.K. Sorrell & B. Lorenzen (200 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Brix, H., B.K. Sorrell & B. Lorenzen (2001): Are phragmites-dominated wetlands a net source or net sink of greenhouse gases? Aquatic Botany 69(2-4): 313-324.

    Description

    The balance between net CO₂-assimilation and CH₄ emission determines if a wetland can be regarded as a net sink or a net source of greenhouse gases. Wetlands may be regarded as a source for greenhouse gases and so increase radiative forcing if evaluated on a short time scale (decades), but as a sink for greenhouse gases and thus attenuating radiative forcing if evaluated over longer time scales (>100 years).

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Hargreaves, K.J., D. Fowler, C.E.R. Pitcairn ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Hargreaves, K.J., D. Fowler, C.E.R. Pitcairn & M. Aurela (2001): Annual methane emission from Finnish mires estimated from eddy covariance campaign measurements. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 70(1-4): 203-213.

    Description

    The effect of global warming on the CH₄ budget of the site was estimated using the central scenario of the SILMU (Finnish Research Programme on Climate Change) model which predicts annual mean temperature increases of 1.2, 2.4 and 4.4 °C in 2020, 2050 and 2100, respectively. Maximum enhancements in CH₄ emission due to warming were calculated to be 18, 40 and 84% for 2020, 2050 and 2100, respectively. Actual increases may be smaller because prediction of changes in water table are highly uncertain.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Whiting, G.J. & J.P. Chanton (2001): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Whiting, G.J. & J.P. Chanton (2001): Greenhouse carbon balance of wetlands: methane emission versus carbon sequestration. Tellus Series B – Chemical and Physical Meteorology 53(5): 521-528.

    Description

    As global warming potential of methane decreases over long time horizons (100 years), our analyses suggest that the subtropical and temperate wetlands attenuate global warming. and northern wetlands may be perched on the "greenhouse compensation" point. Considering a 500-year time horizon, these wetlands can be regarded as sinks for greenhouse gas warming potential, and thus attenuate the greenhouse warming of the atmosphere.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Aurela, M., T. Laurila & J.P. Tuovinen (2 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Aurela, M., T. Laurila & J.P. Tuovinen (2001): Seasonal CO₂ balances of a subarctic mire. Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres 106(D2): 1623-1637.

    Description

    In correspondence to the CO₂ fluxes the strongest sink terms in the daily net ecosystem exchange (NEE) balances of about -6g (CO₂) m^-2d^-1 were observed in July. The highest positive balances of about 4g (CO₂) m^-2d^-1 were observed in early June and in August. The daily balances in April were about 0.6g (CO₂) m^-2d^-1. The net balances for the sink period (June 15 to August 26, 1997) and for the 6-month measurement period were -188 gm^-2 and -30 gm^-2, respectively.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Joiner, D.W., P.M. Lafleur, J.H. McCaughey &a ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Joiner, D.W., P.M. Lafleur, J.H. McCaughey & P.A. Bartlett (1999): Interannual variability in carbon dioxide exchanges at a boreal wetland in the BOREAS northern study area. Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres 104(D22): 27663-27672.

    Description

    Warmer air temperatures and an earlier snowmelt in the spring of 1994, which led to an earlier thaw for the fen surface, and warmer and drier conditions in the fall of 1994 promoted CO₂ production at times when the vascular vegetation was not photosynthesizing. As a result, in 1994 over the study period of 124 days the fen was a net source of CO₂-carbon to the atmosphere, losing 30.8 g C m^-2; for the same period in 1996 the fen was a net sink of CO₂-carbon, assimilating -91.6 g C m^-2.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Dowrick, D.J., Hughes, S., Freeman, C., Lock, ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Dowrick, D.J., Hughes, S., Freeman, C., Lock, M.A., Reynolds, B. & J.A. Hudson (1999): Nitrous oxide emissions from a gully mire in mid-Wales, UK, under simulated summer drought. Biogeochemistry 44(2): 151-162.

    Description

    An eight centimetre drawdown of the water table in a gully mire did not significantly affect nitrous oxide emissions from this site, however, under a more extreme drought scenario carried out on peat monoliths, nitrous oxide emissions increased exponentially with a linear decrease in water table height. Probably, increased emissions were caused by increased nitrous oxide production from denitrification, rather than by increased production from nitrification. In the laboratory, increasing drought severity decreased ammonium concentrations.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Yavitt, J.B., G.E. Lang & A.J. Sexstone ( ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Yavitt, J.B., G.E. Lang & A.J. Sexstone (1990): Methane fluxes in wetland and forest soils, beaver ponds, and low-order streams of a temperate forest ecosystem. Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres 95(D13): 22463-22474.

    Description

    Wetland sites acted as small sources of atmospheric methane. The forest sites were mostly atmospheric methane sinks. Open-water sites were large sources of atmospheric methane. The results of our studies suggest that methane emissions from these /"temperate-like/" ecosystems will not result in a large positive feedback that might exacerbate the rate of global climate warming.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Megonigal, J.P. & W.H. Schlesinger (1997) ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Megonigal, J.P. & W.H. Schlesinger (1997): Enhanced CH₄ emissions from a wetland soil exposed to elevated CO₂. Biogeochemistry 37(1): 77-88.

    Description

    Enhanced CO₂ leads to reduced rates of transpiration. Emegent macrophytes: Growth rate higher under raised CO₂. Possible enhanced CH₄ emissions under raised atmospheric CO₂ concentrations.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Wieder R.K. & J.B. Yavitt (1994): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Wieder R.K. & J.B. Yavitt (1994): Peatlands and global climate change – insights from comparative studies of sites situated along a latitudinal gradient. Wetlands 14(3): 229-238.

    Description

    Latitude effect: CH₄ emissions; Sphagnum growth rate. Photosynthesis effect: carbon emissions from peatland soils. Productivity, biomass effect: rate of growth; C emissions. Use of wetland ecosystems at different latitude to assess potential changes under climate change.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / van Noordwijk, M., P. Martikainen, P. Bottner ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    van Noordwijk, M., P. Martikainen, P. Bottner, E. Cuevas, C. Rouland & S.S. Dhillion (1998): Global change and root function. Global Change Biology 4(7): 759-772.

    Description

    A number of possible mechanisms for root-mediated N mineralization is discussed in the light of climate change factors. Rhizovory (root consumption) may increase under global change as the balance between plant chemical defense and adapted root- consuming organisms may be modified during biome shifts in response to climate change. Root-mediated gas exchange allows oxygen to penetrate into soils and methane (CH₄) to escape from wetland soils of tundra ecosystems as well as tropical rice production systems. The effect on net greenhouse gas emissions of biome shifts (fens replacing bogs) as well as of agricultural land management will depend partly on aerenchyma in roots.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Gedney, N., Cox, P.M. & C. Huntingford (2 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Gedney, N., Cox, P.M. & C. Huntingford (2004): Climate feedback from wetland methane emissions. Geophysical Research Letters 31: L20503

    Description

    In transient climate change simulations the wetland response amplifies the total anthropogenic radiative forcing at 2100 by about 3.5 - 5%. The modelled increase in global CH₄ flux from wetland is comparable to the projected increase in anthropogenic CH₄ emissions over the 21st century under the IS92a scenario.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Rasse, D.P., G. Peresta & P.G. Drake (200 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Rasse, D.P., G. Peresta & P.G. Drake (2005): Seventeen years of elevated CO₂ exposure in a Chesapeake Bay Wetland: sustained but contrasting responses of plant growth and CO₂ uptake. Global Change Biology 11(3): 369-377.

    Description

    A species response to elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration can continually increase when this species is under stress and declining in its natural environment. Climate changes associated with elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration are likely to increase environmental stresses on numerous species and modify their present distribution. Our results point to an increased resilience to change under elevated Ca when plants are exposed to adverse environmental conditions.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Smemo, K.A. & J.B. Yavitt (2006): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Smemo, K.A. & J.B. Yavitt (2006): A multi-year perspective on methane cycling in a shallow peat fen in central New York State, USA. Wetlands 26(1): 20-29.

    Description

    CH₄ flux dependent on precipitation (dry years, water table depth), CH₄ concentrations greater in subsurface than in surface peat, site differences associated with different dominant vegetation had a significant effect on CH₄ cycling in all years except the driest, suggesting sensitivity to vegetation changes.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission, carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention) / Clair T.A., P. Arp, T.R. Moore, M. Dalva & ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission, carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention)

    Reference

    Clair T.A., P. Arp, T.R. Moore, M. Dalva & F.R. Meng (2001): Gaseous carbon dioxide and methane, as well as dissolved organic carbon losses from a small temperate wetland under a changing climate. Environmental Pollution 116 (Suppl. 1): 143-148.

    Description

    Annual C losses from this wetland amount to 0.6% of its total C mass. Predict that under climate changes caused by a doubling of atmospheric CO₂ expected between 2040 and 2050, total C loss from the wetland will almost double to 1.1% of total biomass. This may convert the wetland from what we assume is currently a passive C storage area to an active source of greenhouse gases.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission, nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication / Keller, J.K., J.R. White, S.D. Bridgham & ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission, nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication

    Reference

    Keller, J.K., J.R. White, S.D. Bridgham & J. Pastor (2004): Climate change effects on carbon and nitrogen mineralization in peatlands through changes in soil quality. Global Change Biology 10: 1053-1064.

    Description

    Bog peat: Low water table: less carbon dioxide production. Higher temperatures: lower nitrogen mineralization. Fen peat: Highest water-table treatment: highest methane production, lowest nitrogen mineralization. Changes in soil quality in response to climatic treatments.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission, nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication / Fenner, N., D.J. Dowrick, M.A. Lock, C.R. Raf ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission, nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication

    Reference

    Fenner, N., D.J. Dowrick, M.A. Lock, C.R. Rafarel & C. Freeman (2006): A novel approach to studying the effects of temperature on soil biogeochemistry using a thermal gradient bar. Soil Use and Management 22(3): 267-273.

    Description

    Peat: no significant emission of CH₄ at T< 6 °C, marked CH₄ release increase at T >6 to <15 °C (Q(10) = 2.5) with emissions being similar between 15 and 18 °C. Forest soil: CH₄ emissions did not respond to warming. Nitrate availability in the peat decreased by 90% between 2 and 18 °C (P < 0.01), whereas concentrations in the forest soil did not respond. Sulphate availability in the peat decreased significantly with warming (60%, P < 0.01), while the forest soil showed the opposite response (a 30% increase, P < 0.01). Thermal responses will differ depending on land use and soil type.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission, wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Shindell, D.T., B.P. Walter & G. Faluvegi ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission, wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Shindell, D.T., B.P. Walter & G. Faluvegi (2004): Impacts of climate change on methane emissions from wetlands. Geophysical Research Letters 31: L21202

    Description

    Geographic distributions of wetlands: High northern latitude wetland areas expand, methane emissions triple. Doubled CO₂ simulations show rise in annual average methane emission by 78% (enhanced emissions from tropical wetlands). Predicts 20% increase of global totals from natural emissions under climate change.

  • N-flux / Kaste, Ø., Austnes, K., Vestgarden, L. ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-flux

    Reference

    Kaste, Ø., Austnes, K., Vestgarden, L.S., Wright, R.F. (2008): Manipulation of Snow in Small Headwater Catchments at Storgama, Norway: Effects on Leaching of Inorganic Nitrogen. Ambio 37(1): 29-37.

    Description

    We have manipulated the winter-time soil temperature regime of small headwater catchments in a montane heathland area of southern Norway to study the possible effects on concentrations and fluxes of inorganic nitrogen in runoff. The experiments included extra insulation of soils in two catchments to prevent subzero temperatures during winter, and removal of snow in two other catchments to promote soil frost. Increased soil temperatures during winter increased the springtime concentrations and fluxes of ammonium (NH₄) and nitrate (NO₄) in runoff. By contrast, snow removal with development of significant soil frost showed no systematic effects on mean concentrations or fluxes of inorganic N. The results from our experiments suggest that warmer soils during winter caused by exceptionally mild winters, or alternatively a heavy snowpack, imply a greater risk for inorganic N leaching in this region than a possible increase of soil frost events because of reduced snow cover.

  • N-flux, wet deposition / Hole, L. R., de Wit, H. A., Aas, W. (2008): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-flux, wet deposition

    Reference

    Hole, L. R., de Wit, H. A., Aas, W. (2008): Influence of summer and winter climate variability on nitrogen wet deposition in Norway. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Special Issue (Eurolimpacs).

    Description

    Dominating wind patterns around Norway may change due to climate warming. This could affect transport of polluted air masses and precipitation. Here, we study relations between reactive nitrogen wet deposition and air mass transport during summer and winter expressed in the form of climate indices, at seven sites in Southern Norway for the period 1980-2005. Atmospheric nitrate concentrations decreased with 0 to 50% in the period, particularly at sites with little precipitation, and mostly during 1990-2005. For comparison, reported reductions in emissions of oxidised nitrogen in Europe in 1989-2003 were 23%. Climate indices explained up to 36% of the variation in winter nitrate deposition at the western and northern sites and also explained 60% of the variation in winter precipitation (R=0.77). This suggests that the variation in nitrate wet deposition is closely related to variation in precipitation, and that the climate indices seem to also partly control the variation in atmospheric nitrate concentrations (R=−0.45 at coastal sites). At the coastal sites, local air temperature was highly correlated (R=0.84) with winter nitrate deposition, suggesting that warm, humid winter weather results in increased wet nitrate deposition. For ammonia the pattern was similar, but this compound is more influenced by local sources. Expected severe increase in precipitation in western and northern regions as a consequence of climate change suggest that nitrogen deposition in these areas will increase under global warming if emissions are held constant.

  • Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication / Freeman C., G. Liska, N.J. Ostle, M.A. Lock, ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication

    Reference

    Freeman C., G. Liska, N.J. Ostle, M.A. Lock, B. Reynolds &, J. Hudson (1996): Microbial activity and enzymic decomposition processes following peatland water table drawdown. Plant and Soil 180(1): 121-127.

    Description

    Precipitaton, hydrology and drought: effect on microbial enzyme activity and decomposition rates. The findings support the recent hypothesis that drier conditions associated with climate change could stimulate mineralisation within wetlands.

  • Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication / Bridgham, S.D., K. Updegraff & J. Pastor ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication

    Reference

    Bridgham, S.D., K. Updegraff & J. Pastor (1998): Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus mineralization in northern wetlands. Ecology 79(5): 1545-1561.

    Description

    Mineralization of C, N, and P differed significantly among wetland types. On a volumetric basis, C and N mineralization increased in a predictable manner across the ombrotrophic-minerotrophic gradient, largely due to increasing soil bulk density, however, P mineralization per cubic centimeter remained relatively high in the bogs. Large differences in mineralization rates in northern wetland communities demonstrate that climate change models should not consider these areas as homogeneous entities. The common perception that more ombrotrophic sites are inherently more nutrient deficient needs to be reassessed.

  • Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication / Lischeid, G., A. Kolb, C. Alewell & S. Pa ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication

    Reference

    Lischeid, G., A. Kolb, C. Alewell & S. Paul (2007): Impact of redox and transport processes in a riparian wetland on stream water quality in the Fichtelgebirge region, southern Germany. Hydrological Processes 21(1): 123-132.

    Description

    Baseflow: The stream was fed by discharging shallow, anoxic groundwater without nitrogen and by deep, oxic groundwater with nitrogen (similar to 0-37 mg l^-1). Stormflow: near-surface runoff in the upper 30 cut soil layer bypassed the denitrifying zone and added significant amounts to the nitrogen load of the stream. Nitrate-nitrogen was close to 100% of deep groundwater and stream-water nitrogen concentration. Stream-water baseflow concentrations of nitrate, dissolved carbon and silica were about 1.6 mg l^-1, 4 mg l^-1 and 7.5 mg l^-1 respectively, and > 3 mg l^-1, > 10 mg l^-1 and < 4 mg l^-1 respectively during discharge peaks.

  • Soil structure, soil energy fluxes / Keller, J.K., J.R. White, S.D. Bridgham & ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Soil structure, soil energy fluxes

    Reference

    Keller, J.K., J.R. White, S.D. Bridgham & J. Pastor (2004): Climate change effects on carbon and nitrogen mineralization in peatlands through changes in soil quality. Global Change Biology 10: 1053-1064.

    Description

    Bog peat: Low water table: less carbon dioxide production. Higher temperatures: lower nitrogen mineralization. Fen peat: Highest water-table treatment: highest methane production, lowest nitrogen mineralization. Changes in soil quality in response to climatic treatments.

  • Soil structure, soil energy fluxes / Noormets, A., J.Q. Chen, S.D. Bridgham, J.F. ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Soil structure, soil energy fluxes

    Reference

    Noormets, A., J.Q. Chen, S.D. Bridgham, J.F. Weltzin, J. Pastor, B. Dewey & J. LeMoine (2004): The effects of infrared loading and water table on soil energy fluxes in northern peatlands. Ecosystems 7(5): 573-582.

    Description

    Temperature of soil blocks and dissipation of heat. Hydrology: effect on dissipation of heat from irradiance. The data suggest that the ecosystem-dependent controls over soil energy fluxes may provide an important constraint on biotic response to climate change.

  • Soil structure, soil energy fluxes / Zeeb, P.J. & H.F. Hemond (1998): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Soil structure, soil energy fluxes

    Reference

    Zeeb, P.J. & H.F. Hemond (1998): Hydrologic response of a wetland to changing moisture conditions: Modeling effects of soil heterogeneity. Climatic Change 40(2): 211-227.

    Description

    Precipitation: Wetland hydrology and flooding: Heterogeneity of soil type has effect on hydraulic flow, flow properties, hydraulic conductivity. Method for mapping soil heterogeneity and its implications for hydraulic conductance.

  • Soil structure, soil energy fluxes / Rouse, W.R., D.W. Carlson & E.J. Weick (1 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Soil structure, soil energy fluxes

    Reference

    Rouse, W.R., D.W. Carlson & E.J. Weick (1992): Impacts of summer warming on the energy and water balance of wetland tundra. Climatic Change 22(4): 305-326.

    Description

    Studied hot-dry, normal-dry and normal-wet growing seasons. For periods of comparable energy availability, evapotranspiration during hot-dry conditions can be larger than during cooler and wetter periods. This results from small stomatal resistance in the sparse canopy of well-rooted sedges, and from the ability of peat soils to supply water under conditions of large atmospheric demand. A dry year promotes deeper thaw depths in the permafrost soils, during the growing season, than does a wet one. This is due to larger ground heat fluxes and larger soil thermal diffusivities. We conclude that maritime, wetland tundra, growing on peat soils, displays feedback mechanisms that can offset the effects of moisture stress caused by summer climate warming.

  • Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Moore, M.V., M.L. Pace, J.R. Mather, P.S. Mur ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Moore, M.V., M.L. Pace, J.R. Mather, P.S. Murdoch, R.W. Howarth, C.L. Folt, C.Y. Chen, H.F. Hemond, P.A. Flebbe & C.T. Driscoll (1997): Potential effects of climate change on freshwater ecosystems of the New England/Mid-Atlantic Region. Hydrological Processes 11(8): 925-947.

    Description

    The projected increase in temperature results in greater rates in evaporation and evapotranspiration. This fact could eliminate most bog ecosystems. The results also show a decrease in duration and amount of snow cover and a likely decrease in frequency for summer convective thunderstorms but an increase in intensity.

  • Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Tockner, K. & J.A. Stanford (2002): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Tockner, K. & J.A. Stanford (2002): Riverine flood plains: present state and future trends. Environmental Conservation 29(3): 308-330.

    Description

    Increased summer drying (mid-latitude continental interiors), more intensive precipitation events. Drought. A 3-4 °C climate warming is predicted to eliminate 85% of all remaining wetlands.

  • Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Rogers, C.E. & J.P. McCarty (2000): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Rogers, C.E. & J.P. McCarty (2000): Climate change and ecosystems of the Mid-Atlantic Region. Climate Research 14: 235-244.

    Description

    Wetland habitat loss, less potential in ameliorating negative effects of high streamflows and pollution runoff.

  • Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Pyke, C.R. (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Pyke, C.R. (2004): Habitat loss confounds climate change impacts. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2(4): 178-182.

    Description

    Case study, projection to conditions in year 2040. Spatial distributions of vernal pools, hydrology. Parallel to climate change: habitat loss due to land use change. Distributions of hydrologic regimes in future determined as much by land use as by climate change.

  • Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Ja ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Jacobs & J.H. Gentile (2005): Total system conceptual ecological model. Wetlands 25(4): 955-979.

    Description

    Three external drivers create stressors: 1. water management; 2. land-use management and development; 3. climate change and sea-level rise. Stressors include: loss of spatial extent; loss of connectivity; altered geomorphology and topography; Altered volume, timing, and distribution of regional hydropatterns; input of nutrients; altered fire patterns; and introduction and spread of exotic plants and animals. Ecological effects relate to hydroperiod and depth patterns, sheet flow, salinity gradients, nutrient status and dynamics, fire patterns, habitat availability, and marsh aquatic fauna prey bases. Key ecological indicators are identified.

• Abiotic indicators

  • Acidification / Wright, R.F., Aherne, J., Bishop, K., Camarer ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic indicators
    Indicator	Acidification

    Reference

    Wright, R.F., Aherne, J., Bishop, K., Camarero, L., Cosby, B.J., Erlandsson, M., Evans, C.D., Forsius, M., Hardekopf, D.W., Helliwell, R., Hru?ka, J., Jenkins, A., Kopáček, J., Moldan, F., Posch, M., Rogora, M. (2006): Modelling the effect of climate change on recovery of acidified freshwaters: Relative sensitivity of individual processes in the MAGIC model. Science of the Total Environment, Euro-limpacs Special Issue 365: 154-166.

    Description

    The MAGIC model was used to evaluate the relative sensitivity of several possible climate-induced effects on the recovery of soil and surface water from acidification. A common protocol was used at 14 intensively studied sites in Europe and eastern North America. The results show that several of the factors are of only minor importance (increase in pCO2 in soil air and runoff, for example), several are important at only a few sites (seasalts at near-coastal sites, for example) and several are important at nearly all sites (increased concentrations of organic acids in soil solution and runoff, for example). In addition changes in forest growth and decomposition of soil organic matter are important at forested sites and sites at risk of nitrogen saturation. The trials suggest that in future modelling of recovery from acidification should take into account possible concurrent climate changes and focus specially on the climate-induced changes in organic acids and nitrogen retention.

  • Acidification / Kopač,ek, J., Vrba, J. (2006): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic indicators
    Indicator	Acidification

    Reference

    Kopač,ek, J., Vrba, J. (2006): Integrated ecological research of catchment-lake ecosystems in the Bohemian Forest (Central Europe): A preface. Biologia Bratislava 61, Supplement 20 61: 363-370.

    Description

    The Bohemian Forest (Šumava, Böhmerwald) is situated in Central Europe and is among the most acidified lake districts in the world. Deposition of S and N compounds in the area rapidly increased between 1950 and 1980, and reached a maximum in the 1980s. During the 1990s, acid deposition decreased substantially, and current levels are comparable to the early 20th century for SO₄^2- and NH₄⁺ , and to the mid 1960s for NO₃^- These changes in acid deposition have led to a partial recovery of the Bohemian Forest lakes. This paper provides an overview of previous research, and details on the organization and aims of current research on the Bohemian Forest lakes. Available historical data and regular monitoring (since 1984) provide a valuable background for long-term ecological research of the catchment-lake ecosystems that currently focuses on (i) chemical reversal and biological recovery of the lakes, (ii) acidification impacts on in-lake nutrient cycling, (iii) climatic effects on water chemistry, and (iv) catchment processes, including soil biogeochemistry and acidification impacts on vegetation.

  • N-flux; Hydrology: runoff variations / Andersen, H.E., Kronvang, B., Larsen, S.E., H ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Abiotic indicators
    Indicator	N-flux; Hydrology: runoff variations

    Reference

    Andersen, H.E., Kronvang, B., Larsen, S.E., Hoffmann, C.C., Jensen, T.S., Rasmussen, E.K. (2006): Climate-change impacts on hydrology and nutrients in a Danish lowland river basin. Science of the Total Environment 365: 223-237.

    Description

    The Mike 11-TRANS modelling system was applied to the lowland Gjern river basin in Denmark to assess climate-change impacts on hydrology and nitrogen retention processes in watercourses, lakes and riparian wetlands. Nutrient losses from land to surface waters were assessed using statistical models incorporating the effect of changed hydrology. Climate-change was predicted by the ECHAM4/OPYC General Circulation Model (IPCC A2 scenario) dynamically downscaled by the Danish HIRHAM regional climate model (25 km grid) for two time slices: 1961-1990 (control) and 2071-2100 (scenario). HIRHAM predicts an increase in mean annual precipitation of 47 mm (5%) and an increase in mean annual air temperature of 3.2 °C (43%).The HIRHAM predictions were used as external forcings to the rainfall-runoff model NAM, which was set up and run for 6 subcatchments within and for the entire, Gjern river basin. Mean annual runoff from the river basin increases 27 mm (7.5%, p < 0.05) when comparing the scenario to the control. Larger changes, however, were found regarding the extremes, runoff during the wettest year in the 30-year period increased by 58 mm (12.3%). The seasonal pattern is expected to change with significantly higher runoff during winter. Summer runoff is expected to increase in predominantly groundwater fed streams and decrease in streams with a low base-flow index. The modelled change in the seasonal hydrological pattern is most pronounced in first- or second-order streams draining loamy catchments, which currently have a low base-flow during the summer period. Reductions of 40-70% in summer runoff are predicted for this stream type. A statistical nutrient loss model was developed for simulating the impact of changed hydrology on diffuse nutrient losses (i.e. losses from land to surface waters) and applied to the river basin. The simulated mean annual changes in TN loads in a loamy and a sandy subcatchment were, respectively, + 2.3 kg N ha^-1(8.5%) and + 1.6 kg N ha^-1(6.9%). The rainfall-runoff model and the nutrient loss model were chained with Mike 11-TRANS to simulate the combined effects of climate-change on hydrology, nutrient losses and nitrogen retention processes at the scale of the river basin. The mean annual TN export from the river basin increased from the control to the scenario period by 7.7%. Even though an increase in nitrogen retention in the river system of 4.2% was simulated in the scenario period, an increased in-stream TN export resulted because of the simulated increase in the diffuse TN transfer from the land to the surface-waters.

• Early warning indicators

  • Water table, drought, hydrology / Brooks, R.T. (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Early warning indicators
    Indicator	Water table, drought, hydrology

    Reference

    Brooks, R.T. (2004): Weather-related effects on woodland vernal pool hydrology and hydroperiod. Wetlands 24(1):104-114.

    Description

    Weekly water-level change in vernal pools significantly related to precipitation, effect 2-5 times greater than evapo-transpiration. Inter-annual variation in evapotranspiration. Climate-change prediction: increased evapo-transpiration: vernal pools dry earlier in the year and remain dry longer.

  • Water table, drought, hydrology / Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Ja ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Early warning indicators
    Indicator	Water table, drought, hydrology

    Reference

    Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Jacobs & J.H. Gentile (2005): Total system conceptual ecological model. Wetlands 25(4): 955-979.

    Description

    Three external drivers create stressors: 1. water management; 2. land-use management and development; 3. climate change and sea-level rise. Stressors include: loss of spatial extent; loss of connectivity; altered geomorphology and topography; Altered volume, timing, and distribution of regional hydropatterns; input of nutrients; altered fire patterns; and introduction and spread of exotic plants and animals. Ecological effects relate to hydroperiod and depth patterns, sheet flow, salinity gradients, nutrient status and dynamics, fire patterns, habitat availability, and marsh aquatic fauna prey bases. Key ecological indicators are identified.

  • Water/soil temperature / Fenner, N., D.J. Dowrick, M.A. Lock, C.R. Raf ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Early warning indicators
    Indicator	Water/soil temperature

    Reference

    Fenner, N., D.J. Dowrick, M.A. Lock, C.R. Rafarel & C. Freeman (2006): A novel approach to studying the effects of temperature on soil biogeochemistry using a thermal gradient bar. Soil Use and Management 22(3): 267-273.

    Description

    Peat: no significant emission of CH₄ at T< 6 °C, marked CH₄ release increase at T >6 to <15 °C (Q(10) = 2.5) with emissions being similar between 15 and 18 °C. Forest soil: CH₄ emissions did not respond to warming. Nitrate availability in the peat decreased by 90% between 2 and 18 °C (P < 0.01), whereas concentrations in the forest soil did not respond. Sulphate availability in the peat decreased significantly with warming (60%, P < 0.01), while the forest soil showed the opposite response (a 30% increase, P < 0.01). Thermal responses will differ depending on land use and soil type.

• Primary production: plants

  • Community change, diversity change / Weltzin, J.F., S.D. Bridgham, J. Pastor, J. C ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Community change, diversity change

    Reference

    Weltzin, J.F., S.D. Bridgham, J. Pastor, J. Chen & C. Harth (2003): Potential effects of warming and drying on peatland plant community composition. Global Change Biology 9: 141-151.

    Description

    Increased temperature together with experimentally decreased water table increased cover of shrubs by 50%, decreased cover of graminoids by 50% in bogs. Species-specific responses.

  • Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change / Weltzin, J.F., J. Pastor, C. Harth, S.D. Brid ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change

    Reference

    Weltzin, J.F., J. Pastor, C. Harth, S.D. Bridgham, K. Updegraff & C.T. Chapin (2000): Response of bog and fen plant communities to warming and water-table manipulations. Ecology 8(12): 3464-3478.

    Description

    Soil temperature elevation by 1.6 - 4.1 °C: In bog samples shrub productivity higher, forbs productivity lower. In fen samples: graminoid productivity highest, forbs productivity highest at intermediate temperature levels. Precipitation: Elevated water table: In bog samples bryophyte productivity higher, shrub productivity lower. In fen samples: Graminoid and forbs productivity higher. BNPP:ANPP ratio increased with warming and drying. Opposing responses tend to cancel out the response of production at higher levels of organization.

  • Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change / Wieder R.K. & J.B. Yavitt (1994): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change

    Reference

    Wieder R.K. & J.B. Yavitt (1994): Peatlands and global climate change – insights from comparative studies of sites situated along a latitudinal gradient. Wetlands 14(3): 229-238.

    Description

    Latitude effect: CH₄ emissions; Sphagnum growth rate. Photosynthesis effect: carbon emissions from peatland soils. Productivity, biomass effect: rate of growth; C emissions. Use of wetland ecosystems at different latitude to assess potential changes under climate change.

  • Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change / van Noordwijk, M., P. Martikainen, P. Bottner ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change

    Reference

    van Noordwijk, M., P. Martikainen, P. Bottner, E. Cuevas, C. Rouland & S.S. Dhillion (1998): Global change and root function. Global Change Biology 4(7): 759-772.

    Description

    A number of possible mechanisms for root-mediated N mineralization is discussed in the light of climate change factors. Rhizovory (root consumption) may increase under global change as the balance between plant chemical defense and adapted root- consuming organisms may be modified during biome shifts in response to climate change. Root-mediated gas exchange allows oxygen to penetrate into soils and methane (CH₄) to escape from wetland soils of tundra ecosystems as well as tropical rice production systems. The effect on net greenhouse gas emissions of biome shifts (fens replacing bogs) as well as of agricultural land management will depend partly on aerenchyma in roots.

  • Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change / Rasse, D.P., G. Peresta & P.G. Drake (200 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change

    Reference

    Rasse, D.P., G. Peresta & P.G. Drake (2005): Seventeen years of elevated CO₂ exposure in a Chesapeake Bay Wetland: sustained but contrasting responses of plant growth and CO₂ uptake. Global Change Biology 11(3): 369-377.

    Description

    A species response to elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration can continually increase when this species is under stress and declining in its natural environment. Climate changes associated with elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration are likely to increase environmental stresses on numerous species and modify their present distribution. Our results point to an increased resilience to change under elevated Ca when plants are exposed to adverse environmental conditions.

  • Loss of native species, exotic species increase / Davidson, E.A. & P. Artaxo (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Loss of native species, exotic species increase

    Reference

    Davidson, E.A. & P. Artaxo (2004): Globally significant changes in biological processes of the Amazon Basin: results of the large-scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment. Global Change Biology 10: 519-529.

    Description

    Abiotic incidators:Reduced precipitation. Drought, reduced evapo-transpiration, increased fire susceptability, decreased leaf area, feedback on evapo-transpiration. Change in ratio of annual sinks of atmospheric carbon dioxide (intact forest) to annual sources of atmospheric methane and nitrous oxide (wetlands). Amazonian forest-river system currently nearly balanced in terms of the net 100-year global warming potential of these gases.

    Primary Production: Plants Drought: Proportional loss of native species and influx of invasives; move towards dicotyledonous species. Drought and fire may increase in frequency and severity because of global warming. Two years after burns and transplantations upslope, dicotyledonous species' density and richness increased 3- to 36-fold on soil blocks moved upslope to the driest vegetation zone relative to unmoved soil blocks. Eurasian species, Sonchus arvensis and Cirsium arvense, increased 5- to 13-fold after drought treatment. Fire, particularly the deepest burn, reduced graminoid density and height up to 90%. It is hypothesized that, under climate change conditions, Eurasian species might dominate early successional communities in mid-boreal wetlands.

  • Loss of native species, exotic species increase / Minchinton, T.E. (2002): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Loss of native species, exotic species increase

    Reference

    Minchinton, T.E. (2002): Precipitation during El Niño correlates with increasing spread of Phragmites australis in New England, USA, coastal marshes. Marine Ecology Progress Series 242: 305-309.

    Description

    Increased precipitation during El Nino years 1997-98: Hydrochemistry: decreased salinity in brackish and salt marshes: Increased growth and reproduction of less salt-tolerant invasive species Phragmites australis.

  • Loss of native species, exotic species increase / Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Ja ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Loss of native species, exotic species increase

    Reference

    Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Jacobs & J.H. Gentile (2005): Total system conceptual ecological model. Wetlands 25(4): 955-979.

    Description

    Three external drivers create stressors: 1. water management; 2. land-use management and development; 3. climate change and sea-level rise. Stressors include: loss of spatial extent; loss of connectivity; altered geomorphology and topography; Altered volume, timing, and distribution of regional hydropatterns; input of nutrients; altered fire patterns; and introduction and spread of exotic plants and animals. Ecological effects relate to hydroperiod and depth patterns, sheet flow, salinity gradients, nutrient status and dynamics, fire patterns, habitat availability, and marsh aquatic fauna prey bases. Key ecological indicators are identified.

  • Loss of native species, exotic species increase / Wei, A.H. & P. Chow-Fraser (2006): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Loss of native species, exotic species increase

    Reference

    Wei, A.H. & P. Chow-Fraser (2006): Synergistic impact of water level fluctuation and invasion of Glyceria on Typha in a freshwater marsh of Lake Ontario. Aquatic Botany 84(1): 63-69.

    Description

    Native Typha latifolia vs. Exotic Glyceria maxima, invasive Phragmites australis: Water level fluctuation was the major natural disturbance and it alone accounted for 88% of the variation in Typha. After partitioning out the effect of water level, both human population growth and the presence of exotic species were still significantly related to the decline of native Typha. We suggest that multiple stressors interact with each other to influence changes in native Typha community and cause greater detrimental impact. An important implication of our results is that projected water level decline due to climate change may not necessarily favor the restoration of a desirable native marsh because of the presence of other disturbances such as exotic and invasive species and altered nutrient regime.

  • Loss of native species, exotic species increase, riparian vegetation change, growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change / Carpenter, S.R., S.G. Fisher, N.B. Grimm & ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Loss of native species, exotic species increase, riparian vegetation change, growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change

    Reference

    Carpenter, S.R., S.G. Fisher, N.B. Grimm & J.F. Kitchell (1992): Global change and freshwater ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23: 119-139.

    Description

    Altered riparian vegetation (herbal vegetation and trees), and altered biomass and productivity, exotic species. Effect on detrivores: Slowed decomposition. Altered aquatic communities.

  • Paludification or forest succession / Crawford, R.M.M., C.E. Jeffree & W.G. Ree ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Paludification or forest succession

    Reference

    Crawford, R.M.M., C.E. Jeffree & W.G. Rees (2003): Paludification and forest retreat in northern oceanic environments. Annals of Botany 91: 213-226.

    Description

    A southward depression of the treeline in favour of wet heaths, bogs and wetland tundra communities is observed in northern oceanic environments. Climatic warming in oceanic areas may increase the area covered by bogs and, contrary to general expectations, lead to a retreat rather than an advance in the northern limit of the boreal forest. Physiological and ecological factors may interact to inhibit forest regeneration in habitats where there is a risk of prolonged winter-flooding combined with warmer winters and cool moist summers.

  • Riparian vegetation change / Primack, A.G.B. (2000): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Riparian vegetation change

    Reference

    Primack, A.G.B. (2000): Simulation of climate-change effects on riparian vegetation in the Pere Marquette River, Michigan. Wetlands 20(3): 538-547.

    Description

    Four vegetation classes were identified at the field site (Alnus, Open-Viburnum, Fraxinus-Carpinus, and Acer-Tsuga). The areal extent of vegetation classes at the field site may change by up to 27%.

  • Sensitivity depending on plant traits and niche properties / Thuiller, W., S. Lavorel & M.B Araujo (20 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Sensitivity depending on plant traits and niche properties

    Reference

    Thuiller, W., S. Lavorel & M.B Araujo (2005): Niche properties and geographical extent as predictors of species sensitivity to climate change. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 14(4): 347-357.

    Description

    Niche properties are a good indicator of species sensitivities to climate change. Review of temperature effects on niche as indicators of potential species survival. Macrophytes: emissons of CH₄. Direct link between coverage of macrophytes and ebullition of CH₄.

  • Sensitivity depending on plant traits and niche properties / Deil, U. (2005): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Sensitivity depending on plant traits and niche properties

    Reference

    Deil, U. (2005): A review on habitats, plant traits and vegetation of ephemeral wetlands - a global perspective. Phytocoenologia 35(2-3): 533-705.

    Description

    Latitude effect: relations between relief features, local hydrology and climatic conditions; provision of niche; habitat type. Indicator functional groups: presence and equivalence of wetland floral species.

  • Sensitivity depending on plant traits and niche properties / Lessmann J.M., H. Brix, V. Bauer, O.A. Clever ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Sensitivity depending on plant traits and niche properties

    Reference

    Lessmann J.M., H. Brix, V. Bauer, O.A. Clevering &, F.A. Comin (2001): Effect of climatic gradients on the photosynthetic responses of four Phragmites australis populations. Aquatic Botany 69(2-4): 109-126.

    Description

    Emergent macrophytes Phragmites: photosynthetic performance affected by latitude; phenotypic plasticity. Plants grown in the more northerly climates appeared to be more photosynthetically limited through lower P-max values and lower phi (i) levels. The higher P-max levels in the southern climate were correlated with higher nutrient levels in the tissue of leaves. The results are discussed in relation to the prospected global climate change.

  • Species distribution / Hudon, C., D. Wilcox & J. Ingram (2006) ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Species distribution

    Reference

    Hudon, C., D. Wilcox & J. Ingram (2006): Modeling wetland plant community response to assess water-level regulation scenarios in the Lake Ontario-St. Lawrence River basin. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 113(1-3): 303-328.

    Description

    General approach, scientific methodology and applied management considerations of studies quantifying the relationships between hydrology and wetland plant assemblages (% occurrence, surface area). Performance indicators (metrics), such as total area of wetland in meadow marsh vegetation type, that link wetland response to water levels will be used to assess the effects of different regulation plans under current and future (climate change) water-supply scenarios.

  • Substrate quality / Rouse, W.R., D.W. Carlson & E.J. Weick (1 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Substrate quality

    Reference

    Rouse, W.R., D.W. Carlson & E.J. Weick (1992): Impacts of summer warming on the energy and water balance of wetland tundra. Climatic Change 22(4): 305-326.

    Description

    Studied hot-dry, normal-dry and normal-wet growing seasons. For periods of comparable energy availability, evapotranspiration during hot-dry conditions can be larger than during cooler and wetter periods. This results from small stomatal resistance in the sparse canopy of well-rooted sedges, and from the ability of peat soils to supply water under conditions of large atmospheric demand. A dry year promotes deeper thaw depths in the permafrost soils, during the growing season, than does a wet one. This is due to larger ground heat fluxes and larger soil thermal diffusivities. We conclude that maritime, wetland tundra, growing on peat soils, displays feedback mechanisms that can offset the effects of moisture stress caused by summer climate warming.

• Secondary production - fish

  • Fish distribution, richness, abundance change / Schindler, D.W. (2001): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Secondary production - fish
    Indicator	Fish distribution, richness, abundance change

    Reference

    Schindler, D.W. (2001): The cumulative effects of climate warming and other human stresses on Canadian freshwaters in the new millennium. Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58: 18-29.

    Description

    Increased draught, weaker spring flows, less inundation. Leads to disappearing wetlands. Demise of fisheries, of waterfowl and muskrat populations.

• Secondary production - invertebrates

  • Species distribution, richness, abundance change / Thomas, J.A. (2005): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Secondary production - invertebrates
    Indicator	Species distribution, richness, abundance change

    Reference

    Thomas, J.A. (2005): Monitoring change in the abundance and distribution of insects using butterflies and other indicator groups. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society - Biological Sciences 360(1454): 339-357.

    Description

    General review, includes aquatic habitats. Assessment of the use of species monitoring, especially butterflies, for detection of ecosystem change, including climate change.

  • Species distribution, richness, abundance change / Eyre, M.D. (2006): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Secondary production - invertebrates
    Indicator	Species distribution, richness, abundance change

    Reference

    Eyre, M.D. (2006): A strategic interpretation of beetle (Coleoptera) assemblages, biotopes, habitats and distribution, and the conservation implications. Journal of Insect Conservation 10(2): 151-160.

    Description

    Coleoptera: Productivity of exposed riverine sediment ground beetle biotopes was dependent on deposited organic matter and disturbance on the effects of water flow on site structure. With both ground beetle biotopes, the distribution of assemblages was also affected by substrate water, another abiotic driver. Productivity in aquatic beetle biotopes was a function of base-status, generally reflected by pH, whilst disturbance was mainly due to water flow and wave action.

• Susceptibility ecosystem

  • Groundwater / Lischeid, G., A. Kolb, C. Alewell & S. Pa ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Groundwater

    Reference

    Lischeid, G., A. Kolb, C. Alewell & S. Paul (2007): Impact of redox and transport processes in a riparian wetland on stream water quality in the Fichtelgebirge region, southern Germany. Hydrological Processes 21(1): 123-132.

    Description

    Baseflow: The stream was fed by discharging shallow, anoxic groundwater without nitrogen and by deep, oxic groundwater with nitrogen (similar to 0-37 mg l^-1). Stormflow: near-surface runoff in the upper 30 cut soil layer bypassed the denitrifying zone and added significant amounts to the nitrogen load of the stream. Nitrate-nitrogen was close to 100% of deep groundwater and stream-water nitrogen concentration. Stream-water baseflow concentrations of nitrate, dissolved carbon and silica were about 1.6 mg l^-1, 4 mg l^-1 and 7.5 mg l^-1 respectively, and > 3 mg l^-1, > 10 mg l^-1 and < 4 mg l^-1 respectively during discharge peaks.

  • Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase) / Pyke, C.R. (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase)

    Reference

    Pyke, C.R. (2004): Habitat loss confounds climate change impacts. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2(4): 178-182.

    Description

    Case study, projection to conditions in year 2040. Spatial distributions of vernal pools, hydrology. Parallel to climate change: habitat loss due to land use change. Distributions of hydrologic regimes in future determined as much by land use as by climate change.

  • Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase) / Brinson, M.M. & A.I. Malvarez (2002): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase)

    Reference

    Brinson, M.M. & A.I. Malvarez (2002): Temperate freshwater wetlands: types, status, and threats. Environmental Conservation 29(2): 115-133.

    Description

    Temperature effect: Water abstractions. Review of a range of impacts on different wetland types. One trend is that the more industrialised countries are likely to conserve their already impacted, remaining wetlands, while nations with less industrialisation are now experiencing accelerated losses, and may continue to do so for the next several decades.

  • Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase) / Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Ja ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase)

    Reference

    Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Jacobs & J.H. Gentile (2005): Total system conceptual ecological model. Wetlands 25(4): 955-979.

    Description

    Three external drivers create stressors: 1. water management; 2. land-use management and development; 3. climate change and sea-level rise. Stressors include: loss of spatial extent; loss of connectivity; altered geomorphology and topography; Altered volume, timing, and distribution of regional hydropatterns; input of nutrients; altered fire patterns; and introduction and spread of exotic plants and animals. Ecological effects relate to hydroperiod and depth patterns, sheet flow, salinity gradients, nutrient status and dynamics, fire patterns, habitat availability, and marsh aquatic fauna prey bases. Key ecological indicators are identified.

  • Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase) / Wei, A.H. & P. Chow-Fraser (2006): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase)

    Reference

    Wei, A.H. & P. Chow-Fraser (2006): Synergistic impact of water level fluctuation and invasion of Glyceria on Typha in a freshwater marsh of Lake Ontario. Aquatic Botany 84(1): 63-69.

    Description

    Native Typha latifolia vs. Exotic Glyceria maxima, invasive Phragmites australis: Water level fluctuation was the major natural disturbance and it alone accounted for 88% of the variation in Typha. After partitioning out the effect of water level, both human population growth and the presence of exotic species were still significantly related to the decline of native Typha. We suggest that multiple stressors interact with each other to influence changes in native Typha community and cause greater detrimental impact. An important implication of our results is that projected water level decline due to climate change may not necessarily favor the restoration of a desirable native marsh because of the presence of other disturbances such as exotic and invasive species and altered nutrient regime.

  • Soil type / Keller, J.K., J.R. White, S.D. Bridgham & ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Soil type

    Reference

    Keller, J.K., J.R. White, S.D. Bridgham & J. Pastor (2004): Climate change effects on carbon and nitrogen mineralization in peatlands through changes in soil quality. Global Change Biology 10: 1053-1064.

    Description

    Bog peat: Low water table: less carbon dioxide production. Higher temperatures: lower nitrogen mineralization. Fen peat: Highest water-table treatment: highest methane production, lowest nitrogen mineralization. Changes in soil quality in response to climatic treatments.

  • Soil type / Zeeb, P.J. & H.F. Hemond (1998): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Soil type

    Reference

    Zeeb, P.J. & H.F. Hemond (1998): Hydrologic response of a wetland to changing moisture conditions: Modeling effects of soil heterogeneity. Climatic Change 40(2): 211-227.

    Description

    Precipitation: Wetland hydrology and flooding: Heterogeneity of soil type has effect on hydraulic flow, flow properties, hydraulic conductivity. Method for mapping soil heterogeneity and its implications for hydraulic conductance.

  • Soil type / Bridgham, S.D., K. Updegraff & J. Pastor ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Soil type

    Reference

    Bridgham, S.D., K. Updegraff & J. Pastor (1998): Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus mineralization in northern wetlands. Ecology 79(5): 1545-1561.

    Description

    Mineralization of C, N, and P differed significantly among wetland types. On a volumetric basis, C and N mineralization increased in a predictable manner across the ombrotrophic-minerotrophic gradient, largely due to increasing soil bulk density, however, P mineralization per cubic centimeter remained relatively high in the bogs. Large differences in mineralization rates in northern wetland communities demonstrate that climate change models should not consider these areas as homogeneous entities. The common perception that more ombrotrophic sites are inherently more nutrient deficient needs to be reassessed.

  • Soil type / Schwarzel, K., J. Simunek, M.Th. van Genuchte ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Soil type

    Reference

    Schwarzel, K., J. Simunek, M.Th. van Genuchten & G. Wessolek (2006): Measurement and modeling of soil-water dynamics and evapotranspiration of drained peatland soils. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science-Zeitschrift Für Pflanzenernahrung und Bodenkunde 169(6): 762-774.

    Description

    Evapotranspiration rates during dry years depended very much on upward capillary flow from the water table and hence on the soil hydraulic properties. During wet years, however, ET was controlled mostly by the evaporative demand of the atmosphere, and much less by the soil hydraulic properties.

  • Soil type / van der Kamp, G., M. Hayashi & D. Gallen ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Soil type

    Reference

    van der Kamp, G., M. Hayashi & D. Gallen (2003): Comparing the hydrology of grassed and cultivated catchments in the semi-arid Canadian prairies. Hydrological Processes 17(3): 559-575.

    Description

    In 1980 and 1983 a total of about one-third of the 4 km² area was converted from cultivation to undisturbed cover of brome grass. A few years all the wetlands within the area of grass dried out; they have remained dry since, wetlands in adjacent cultivated lands have held water as before. Introduction of undisturbed grass reduces water input: efficient snow trapping and enhanced infiltration into frozen soil. In winter, the tall brome grass traps most of the snowfall, whereas in the cultivated fields more wind transport of snow occurs. Grassland: infiltrability of the frozen soil high enough to absorb most or all of the snowmelt, cultivated fields: infiltration into frozen soil is limited and significant runoff occurs. Summer: the infiltrability increases for the cultivated fields, but the grassland retains a much higher infiltrability than the cultivated land. The development of enhanced infiltrability takes several years after the conversion from cultivation to grass, and is likely due to the gradual development of macropores, such as root holes, desiccation cracks, and animal burrows.

  • Soil type / Fenner, N., D.J. Dowrick, M.A. Lock, C.R. Raf ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Soil type

    Reference

    Fenner, N., D.J. Dowrick, M.A. Lock, C.R. Rafarel & C. Freeman (2006): A novel approach to studying the effects of temperature on soil biogeochemistry using a thermal gradient bar. Soil Use and Management 22(3): 267-273.

    Description

    Peat: no significant emission of CH₄ at T< 6 °C, marked CH₄ release increase at T >6 to <15 °C (Q(10) = 2.5) with emissions being similar between 15 and 18 °C. Forest soil: CH₄ emissions did not respond to warming. Nitrate availability in the peat decreased by 90% between 2 and 18 °C (P < 0.01), whereas concentrations in the forest soil did not respond. Sulphate availability in the peat decreased significantly with warming (60%, P < 0.01), while the forest soil showed the opposite response (a 30% increase, P < 0.01). Thermal responses will differ depending on land use and soil type.

• Vertebrates

  • Amphibians: no major effect (except distribution depends on wetland extension) / Diamond, S.A., G.S. Peterson, J.E. Tietge &am ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Amphibians: no major effect (except distribution depends on wetland extension)

    Reference

    Diamond, S.A., G.S. Peterson, J.E. Tietge & G.T. Ankley (2002): Assessment of the risk of solar ultraviolet radiation to amphibians. III. Prediction of impacts in selected northern midwestern wetlands. Environmental Science & Technology 36(13): 2866-2874.

    Description

    Variation in ultraviolet solar radiation (UVB 280-320 nm): Amphibians: Risk of mortality and malformations due to solar radiation currently low for majority of wetlands evaluated. (Rana pipiens, R. clamitans, R. septentrionalis).

  • Amphibians: no major effect (except distribution depends on wetlandl extension) / Freidenburg, L.K. & D.K. Skelly (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Amphibians: no major effect (except distribution depends on wetlandl extension)

    Reference

    Freidenburg, L.K. & D.K. Skelly (2004): Microgeographical variation in thermal preference by an amphibian. Ecology Letters 7: 369-373.

    Description

    Temperature effect on egg masses of Rana sylvatica from heavily shaded to open wetland ponds. Experimental temperature gradients in troughs. Localized selection leading to countergradient patterns of thermal preference behaviour: Larvae from closed canopy ponds are more strongly temperature selective and prefer higher temperatures than conspecifics from populations of open canopy ponds. In modelling responses of animals to climate change it should be accounted for rapid behavioral evolution.

  • Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution / Schindler, D.W. (2001): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution

    Reference

    Schindler, D.W. (2001): The cumulative effects of climate warming and other human stresses on Canadian freshwaters in the new millennium. Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58: 18-29.

    Description

    Increased draught, weaker spring flows, less inundation. Leads to disappearing wetlands. Demise of fisheries, of waterfowl and muskrat populations.

  • Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution / Zalakevicius M. & R. Zalakeviciute (2001) ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution

    Reference

    Zalakevicius M. & R. Zalakeviciute (2001): Global climate change impact on birds: a review of research in Lithuania. Folia Zoologica 50(1): 1-17.

    Description

    Timing of spring arrival.

  • Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution / Gillings, S., G.E. Austin, R. Fuller & W. ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution

    Reference

    Gillings, S., G.E. Austin, R. Fuller & W.J. Sutherland (2006): Distribution shifts in wintering golden plover Pluvialis apricaria and lapwing Vanellus vanellus in Britain. Bird Study 53: 274-284.

    Description

    The winter distribution of Golden Plover (Pluvialis apricaria) and Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) has shifted east since the mid-1980s, perhaps in response to climate change.

  • Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution / Johnson, W.C., B.V. Millett, T. Gilmanov, R.A ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution

    Reference

    Johnson, W.C., B.V. Millett, T. Gilmanov, R.A. Voldseth, G.R. Guntenspergen & D.E. Naugle (2005): Vulnerability of northern prairie wetlands to climate change. Bioscience 55(10): 863-872.

    Description

    The most productive habitat for breeding waterfowl would shift under a drier climate from the center of the PPR (the Dakotas and southeastern Saskatchewan) to the wetter eastern and northern fringes, areas currently less productive or where most wetlands have been drained. Unless these wetlands are protected and restored, there is little insurance for waterfowl against future climate warming.

  • Birds: reproductive success / Fletcher, R.J. & R.R. Koford (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	wetlands in general
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Birds: reproductive success

    Reference

    Fletcher, R.J. & R.R. Koford (2004): Consequences of rainfall variation for breeding wetland blackbirds. Canadian Journal of Zoology-Revue Canadienne De Zoologie 82(8): 1316-1325.

    Description

    Dry years: yellow-headed blackbirds, Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus (Bonaparte, 1826), an obligate wetland-breeding species: complete reproductive failure. Attributed primarily to nest predation, which was negatively correlated with water levels in wetlands. Red-winged blackbirds, Agelaius phoeniceus (L., 1766), a facultative wetland-breeding species: little variation in density and nest success between wet and dry years. Both species exhibited similar patterns of reduced clutch size and later nest initiation dates in dry years, measures often tied to bottom-up effects of food availability and (or) age of individuals. Yet top-down effects of nest predation had a stronger influence, because lower clutch size did not result in fewer young fledged per successful nest. Incorporating how rainfall variation can affect wetland songbird demography will be critical for understanding population and community dynamics in changing environments.
• 
  

  Riverine

  Abiotic incidators

  • Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention) / Maurice, P.A., S.E. Cabaniss, J. Drummond &am ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention)

    Reference

    Maurice, P.A., S.E. Cabaniss, J. Drummond & E. Ito (2002): Hydrogeochemical controls on the variations in chemical characteristics of natural organic matter at a small freshwater wetland. Chemical Geology 187(1): 259-277.

    Description

    Relation of DOC to predominant water source (soil pore water or ground water discharge). Hydrology effect: attenuation of UV radiation; photoaggregation and photodegradation of organic matter. Suspended and dissolved organic matter -> UV light attenuation. Found that hydrology influences fate or organic matter, which relates to changes with climate in UV attenuation.

  • Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention), salinity / Waiser, M.J. (2006): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention), salinity

    Reference

    Waiser, M.J. (2006): Relationship between hydrological characteristics and dissolved organic carbon concentration and mass in northern prairie wetlands using a conservative tracer approach. Journal of Geophysical Research-Biogeosciences 111: G02024.

    Description

    Saline ponds appeared to experience net seasonal removal of DOC. Possible mechanisms: infiltration to the pond margin, bacterial utilization, and photolysis. Freshwater ponds, which lost most of their water by infiltration to the pond margin, displayed less seasonal variation in DOC concentrations: relationship between DOC and chloride ion was not as strong as in the saline ponds; the slope of this relationship was always > 1, as were DOC: chloride ratios. These data indicated that although DOC was being lost to the pond margin as water infiltrated, freshwater ponds accumulated DOC seasonally. Decomposition and excretion of DOC by macrophytes, as well as by pelagic and attached phytoplankton, are the likely within pond sources of DOC here. The rapid response of these small, shallow aquatic systems to water loss make them ideal microcosms in which to study effects of climate on DOC concentrations and other water chemistry parameters.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Davidson, E.A. & P. Artaxo (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Davidson, E.A. & P. Artaxo (2004): Globally significant changes in biological processes of the Amazon Basin: results of the large-scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment. Global Change Biology 10: 519-529.

    Description

    Abiotic incidators:Reduced precipitation. Drought, reduced evapo-transpiration, increased fire susceptability, decreased leaf area, feedback on evapo-transpiration. Change in ratio of annual sinks of atmospheric carbon dioxide (intact forest) to annual sources of atmospheric methane and nitrous oxide (wetlands). Amazonian forest-river system currently nearly balanced in terms of the net 100-year global warming potential of these gases.

    Primary Production: Plants Drought: Proportional loss of native species and influx of invasives; move towards dicotyledonous species. Drought and fire may increase in frequency and severity because of global warming. Two years after burns and transplantations upslope, dicotyledonous species' density and richness increased 3- to 36-fold on soil blocks moved upslope to the driest vegetation zone relative to unmoved soil blocks. Eurasian species, Sonchus arvensis and Cirsium arvense, increased 5- to 13-fold after drought treatment. Fire, particularly the deepest burn, reduced graminoid density and height up to 90%. It is hypothesized that, under climate change conditions, Eurasian species might dominate early successional communities in mid-boreal wetlands.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Werner, C., K. Davis, P. Bakwin, C. Yi, D. Hu ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Werner, C., K. Davis, P. Bakwin, C. Yi, D. Hurst & L. Lock (2003): Regional-scale measurements of CH₄ exchange from a tall tower over a mixed temperate/boreal lowland and wetland forest. Global Change Biology 9(9): 1251-1261.

    Description

    Seasonal and interannual temperature variation: Maximum soil temperatures coincide with maximum CH₄ emission values. Reduced precipitation: Reduced water table levels suppressed CH₄ emissions. Long-term climatic changes reducing water table may transform this landscape to reduced emission or sink for atmospheric CH₄.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Thuiller, W., S. Lavorel & M.B Araujo (20 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Thuiller, W., S. Lavorel & M.B Araujo (2005): Niche properties and geographical extent as predictors of species sensitivity to climate change. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 14(4): 347-357.

    Description

    Niche properties are a good indicator of species sensitivities to climate change. Review of temperature effects on niche as indicators of potential species survival. Macrophytes: emissons of CH₄. Direct link between coverage of macrophytes and ebullition of CH₄.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Walter, B.P., M. Heimann & E. Matthews (2 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Walter, B.P., M. Heimann & E. Matthews (2001): Modeling modern methane emissions from natural wetlands 1. Model description and results. Journal of Geophysical Reseach - Atmospheres 106(D24): 34189-34206.

    Description

    The global methane-hydrology model constitutes a tool to study temporal and spatial variations in methane emissions from natural wetlands. To investigate the response of methane emissions from natural wetlands to climate variations, a process-based model that derives methane emissions from natural wetlands as a function of soil temperature, water table, and net primary productivity is used. We calculate global annual methane emissions from wetlands to be 260 Tg yr^-1. Twenty-five percent of these methane emissions originate from wetlands north of 30 °N. Only 60% of the produced methane is emitted, while the rest is reoxidized.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Brix, H., B.K. Sorrell & B. Lorenzen (200 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Brix, H., B.K. Sorrell & B. Lorenzen (2001): Are phragmites-dominated wetlands a net source or net sink of greenhouse gases? Aquatic Botany 69(2-4): 313-324.

    Description

    The balance between net CO₂-assimilation and CH₄ emission determines if a wetland can be regarded as a net sink or a net source of greenhouse gases. Wetlands may be regarded as a source for greenhouse gases and so increase radiative forcing if evaluated on a short time scale (decades), but as a sink for greenhouse gases and thus attenuating radiative forcing if evaluated over longer time scales (>100 years).

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Hargreaves, K.J., D. Fowler, C.E.R. Pitcairn ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Hargreaves, K.J., D. Fowler, C.E.R. Pitcairn & M. Aurela (2001): Annual methane emission from Finnish mires estimated from eddy covariance campaign measurements. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 70(1-4): 203-213.

    Description

    The effect of global warming on the CH₄ budget of the site was estimated using the central scenario of the SILMU (Finnish Research Programme on Climate Change) model which predicts annual mean temperature increases of 1.2, 2.4 and 4.4 °C in 2020, 2050 and 2100, respectively. Maximum enhancements in CH₄ emission due to warming were calculated to be 18, 40 and 84% for 2020, 2050 and 2100, respectively. Actual increases may be smaller because prediction of changes in water table are highly uncertain.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Whiting, G.J. & J.P. Chanton (2001): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Whiting, G.J. & J.P. Chanton (2001): Greenhouse carbon balance of wetlands: methane emission versus carbon sequestration. Tellus Series B – Chemical and Physical Meteorology 53(5): 521-528.

    Description

    As global warming potential of methane decreases over long time horizons (100 years), our analyses suggest that the subtropical and temperate wetlands attenuate global warming. and northern wetlands may be perched on the "greenhouse compensation" point. Considering a 500-year time horizon, these wetlands can be regarded as sinks for greenhouse gas warming potential, and thus attenuate the greenhouse warming of the atmosphere.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Aurela, M., T. Laurila & J.P. Tuovinen (2 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Aurela, M., T. Laurila & J.P. Tuovinen (2001): Seasonal CO₂ balances of a subarctic mire. Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres 106(D2): 1623-1637.

    Description

    In correspondence to the CO₂ fluxes the strongest sink terms in the daily net ecosystem exchange (NEE) balances of about -6g (CO₂) m^-2d^-1 were observed in July. The highest positive balances of about 4g (CO₂) m^-2d^-1 were observed in early June and in August. The daily balances in April were about 0.6g (CO₂) m^-2d^-1. The net balances for the sink period (June 15 to August 26, 1997) and for the 6-month measurement period were -188 gm^-2 and -30 gm^-2, respectively.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Joiner, D.W., P.M. Lafleur, J.H. McCaughey &a ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Joiner, D.W., P.M. Lafleur, J.H. McCaughey & P.A. Bartlett (1999): Interannual variability in carbon dioxide exchanges at a boreal wetland in the BOREAS northern study area. Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres 104(D22): 27663-27672.

    Description

    Warmer air temperatures and an earlier snowmelt in the spring of 1994, which led to an earlier thaw for the fen surface, and warmer and drier conditions in the fall of 1994 promoted CO₂ production at times when the vascular vegetation was not photosynthesizing. As a result, in 1994 over the study period of 124 days the fen was a net source of CO₂-carbon to the atmosphere, losing 30.8 g C m^-2; for the same period in 1996 the fen was a net sink of CO₂-carbon, assimilating -91.6 g C m^-2.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Dowrick, D.J., Hughes, S., Freeman, C., Lock, ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Dowrick, D.J., Hughes, S., Freeman, C., Lock, M.A., Reynolds, B. & J.A. Hudson (1999): Nitrous oxide emissions from a gully mire in mid-Wales, UK, under simulated summer drought. Biogeochemistry 44(2): 151-162.

    Description

    An eight centimetre drawdown of the water table in a gully mire did not significantly affect nitrous oxide emissions from this site, however, under a more extreme drought scenario carried out on peat monoliths, nitrous oxide emissions increased exponentially with a linear decrease in water table height. Probably, increased emissions were caused by increased nitrous oxide production from denitrification, rather than by increased production from nitrification. In the laboratory, increasing drought severity decreased ammonium concentrations.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Pulliam, W.M. & J.L. Meyer (1992): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Pulliam, W.M. & J.L. Meyer (1992): Methane emissions from floodplain swamps of the Ogeechee River – long-term patterns and effects of climate change. Biogeochemistry 15(3): 151-174.

    Description

    Models were applied to observed climate and hydrography for 1937-1989 and to simulated altered climates. Altered climates were generated from the present-day climate by changing monthly temperatures and monthly precipitation by constant proportions, thus altering long-term averages and preserving year-to-year variation. In the altered climate simulations, methane emissions were very sensitive to changes in precipitation amounts, with a 20% decrease in rainfall resulting in 30-43% declines in methane emissions. Hydrologic impacts of changes in evapotranspiration rates were more important than direct temperature effects on methane production.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Yavitt, J.B., G.E. Lang & A.J. Sexstone ( ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Yavitt, J.B., G.E. Lang & A.J. Sexstone (1990): Methane fluxes in wetland and forest soils, beaver ponds, and low-order streams of a temperate forest ecosystem. Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres 95(D13): 22463-22474.

    Description

    Wetland sites acted as small sources of atmospheric methane. The forest sites were mostly atmospheric methane sinks. Open-water sites were large sources of atmospheric methane. The results of our studies suggest that methane emissions from these /"temperate-like/" ecosystems will not result in a large positive feedback that might exacerbate the rate of global climate warming.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Megonigal, J.P. & W.H. Schlesinger (1997) ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Megonigal, J.P. & W.H. Schlesinger (1997): Enhanced CH₄ emissions from a wetland soil exposed to elevated CO₂. Biogeochemistry 37(1): 77-88.

    Description

    Enhanced CO₂ leads to reduced rates of transpiration. Emegent macrophytes: Growth rate higher under raised CO₂. Possible enhanced CH₄ emissions under raised atmospheric CO₂ concentrations.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Wieder R.K. & J.B. Yavitt (1994): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Wieder R.K. & J.B. Yavitt (1994): Peatlands and global climate change – insights from comparative studies of sites situated along a latitudinal gradient. Wetlands 14(3): 229-238.

    Description

    Latitude effect: CH₄ emissions; Sphagnum growth rate. Photosynthesis effect: carbon emissions from peatland soils. Productivity, biomass effect: rate of growth; C emissions. Use of wetland ecosystems at different latitude to assess potential changes under climate change.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / van Noordwijk, M., P. Martikainen, P. Bottner ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    van Noordwijk, M., P. Martikainen, P. Bottner, E. Cuevas, C. Rouland & S.S. Dhillion (1998): Global change and root function. Global Change Biology 4(7): 759-772.

    Description

    A number of possible mechanisms for root-mediated N mineralization is discussed in the light of climate change factors. Rhizovory (root consumption) may increase under global change as the balance between plant chemical defense and adapted root- consuming organisms may be modified during biome shifts in response to climate change. Root-mediated gas exchange allows oxygen to penetrate into soils and methane (CH₄) to escape from wetland soils of tundra ecosystems as well as tropical rice production systems. The effect on net greenhouse gas emissions of biome shifts (fens replacing bogs) as well as of agricultural land management will depend partly on aerenchyma in roots.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Gedney, N., Cox, P.M. & C. Huntingford (2 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Gedney, N., Cox, P.M. & C. Huntingford (2004): Climate feedback from wetland methane emissions. Geophysical Research Letters 31: L20503

    Description

    In transient climate change simulations the wetland response amplifies the total anthropogenic radiative forcing at 2100 by about 3.5 - 5%. The modelled increase in global CH₄ flux from wetland is comparable to the projected increase in anthropogenic CH₄ emissions over the 21st century under the IS92a scenario.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Rasse, D.P., G. Peresta & P.G. Drake (200 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Rasse, D.P., G. Peresta & P.G. Drake (2005): Seventeen years of elevated CO₂ exposure in a Chesapeake Bay Wetland: sustained but contrasting responses of plant growth and CO₂ uptake. Global Change Biology 11(3): 369-377.

    Description

    A species response to elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration can continually increase when this species is under stress and declining in its natural environment. Climate changes associated with elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration are likely to increase environmental stresses on numerous species and modify their present distribution. Our results point to an increased resilience to change under elevated Ca when plants are exposed to adverse environmental conditions.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Smemo, K.A. & J.B. Yavitt (2006): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Smemo, K.A. & J.B. Yavitt (2006): A multi-year perspective on methane cycling in a shallow peat fen in central New York State, USA. Wetlands 26(1): 20-29.

    Description

    CH₄ flux dependent on precipitation (dry years, water table depth), CH₄ concentrations greater in subsurface than in surface peat, site differences associated with different dominant vegetation had a significant effect on CH₄ cycling in all years except the driest, suggesting sensitivity to vegetation changes.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission, nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication / Fenner, N., D.J. Dowrick, M.A. Lock, C.R. Raf ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission, nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication

    Reference

    Fenner, N., D.J. Dowrick, M.A. Lock, C.R. Rafarel & C. Freeman (2006): A novel approach to studying the effects of temperature on soil biogeochemistry using a thermal gradient bar. Soil Use and Management 22(3): 267-273.

    Description

    Peat: no significant emission of CH₄ at T< 6 °C, marked CH₄ release increase at T >6 to <15 °C (Q(10) = 2.5) with emissions being similar between 15 and 18 °C. Forest soil: CH₄ emissions did not respond to warming. Nitrate availability in the peat decreased by 90% between 2 and 18 °C (P < 0.01), whereas concentrations in the forest soil did not respond. Sulphate availability in the peat decreased significantly with warming (60%, P < 0.01), while the forest soil showed the opposite response (a 30% increase, P < 0.01). Thermal responses will differ depending on land use and soil type.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission, wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Shindell, D.T., B.P. Walter & G. Faluvegi ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission, wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Shindell, D.T., B.P. Walter & G. Faluvegi (2004): Impacts of climate change on methane emissions from wetlands. Geophysical Research Letters 31: L21202

    Description

    Geographic distributions of wetlands: High northern latitude wetland areas expand, methane emissions triple. Doubled CO₂ simulations show rise in annual average methane emission by 78% (enhanced emissions from tropical wetlands). Predicts 20% increase of global totals from natural emissions under climate change.

  • Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication / Aherne, J., T. Larssen, P.J. Dillon & B.J ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication

    Reference

    Aherne, J., T. Larssen, P.J. Dillon & B.J. Cosby (2004): Effects of climate events on environmental fluxes from forested catchments in Ontario, Canada: Modelling drought-induced redox processes. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution: Focus 4: 37-48.

    Description

    Drought periods: Oxidation of stored sulphur in wetlands, subsequent efflux into streams/lakes. Generation of wetland compartment with incorporated redox processes included in MAGIC model.

  • Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication / Freeman C., M.A. Lock & B. Reynolds (199 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication

    Reference

    Freeman C., M.A. Lock & B. Reynolds (1993): Climatic change and the release of immobilised nutrients from Welsh riparian wetland soils. Ecological Engineering 2(4): 367-373.

    Description

    Drought: Enhanced rates of release of chemicals in peat core. Potential for wetlands to release sequestered nutrients with drought stimulated by climate change.

  • Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication / Bridgham, S.D., K. Updegraff & J. Pastor ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication

    Reference

    Bridgham, S.D., K. Updegraff & J. Pastor (1998): Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus mineralization in northern wetlands. Ecology 79(5): 1545-1561.

    Description

    Mineralization of C, N, and P differed significantly among wetland types. On a volumetric basis, C and N mineralization increased in a predictable manner across the ombrotrophic-minerotrophic gradient, largely due to increasing soil bulk density, however, P mineralization per cubic centimeter remained relatively high in the bogs. Large differences in mineralization rates in northern wetland communities demonstrate that climate change models should not consider these areas as homogeneous entities. The common perception that more ombrotrophic sites are inherently more nutrient deficient needs to be reassessed.

  • Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication / Lischeid, G., A. Kolb, C. Alewell & S. Pa ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication

    Reference

    Lischeid, G., A. Kolb, C. Alewell & S. Paul (2007): Impact of redox and transport processes in a riparian wetland on stream water quality in the Fichtelgebirge region, southern Germany. Hydrological Processes 21(1): 123-132.

    Description

    Baseflow: The stream was fed by discharging shallow, anoxic groundwater without nitrogen and by deep, oxic groundwater with nitrogen (similar to 0-37 mg l^-1). Stormflow: near-surface runoff in the upper 30 cut soil layer bypassed the denitrifying zone and added significant amounts to the nitrogen load of the stream. Nitrate-nitrogen was close to 100% of deep groundwater and stream-water nitrogen concentration. Stream-water baseflow concentrations of nitrate, dissolved carbon and silica were about 1.6 mg l^-1, 4 mg l^-1 and 7.5 mg l^-1 respectively, and > 3 mg l^-1, > 10 mg l^-1 and < 4 mg l^-1 respectively during discharge peaks.

  • Soil structure, soil energy fluxes / Zeeb, P.J. & H.F. Hemond (1998): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Soil structure, soil energy fluxes

    Reference

    Zeeb, P.J. & H.F. Hemond (1998): Hydrologic response of a wetland to changing moisture conditions: Modeling effects of soil heterogeneity. Climatic Change 40(2): 211-227.

    Description

    Precipitation: Wetland hydrology and flooding: Heterogeneity of soil type has effect on hydraulic flow, flow properties, hydraulic conductivity. Method for mapping soil heterogeneity and its implications for hydraulic conductance.

  • Soil structure, soil energy fluxes / Rouse, W.R., D.W. Carlson & E.J. Weick (1 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Soil structure, soil energy fluxes

    Reference

    Rouse, W.R., D.W. Carlson & E.J. Weick (1992): Impacts of summer warming on the energy and water balance of wetland tundra. Climatic Change 22(4): 305-326.

    Description

    Studied hot-dry, normal-dry and normal-wet growing seasons. For periods of comparable energy availability, evapotranspiration during hot-dry conditions can be larger than during cooler and wetter periods. This results from small stomatal resistance in the sparse canopy of well-rooted sedges, and from the ability of peat soils to supply water under conditions of large atmospheric demand. A dry year promotes deeper thaw depths in the permafrost soils, during the growing season, than does a wet one. This is due to larger ground heat fluxes and larger soil thermal diffusivities. We conclude that maritime, wetland tundra, growing on peat soils, displays feedback mechanisms that can offset the effects of moisture stress caused by summer climate warming.

  • Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Tockner, K. & J.A. Stanford (2002): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Tockner, K. & J.A. Stanford (2002): Riverine flood plains: present state and future trends. Environmental Conservation 29(3): 308-330.

    Description

    Increased summer drying (mid-latitude continental interiors), more intensive precipitation events. Drought. A 3-4 °C climate warming is predicted to eliminate 85% of all remaining wetlands.

  • Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Rogers, C.E. & J.P. McCarty (2000): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Rogers, C.E. & J.P. McCarty (2000): Climate change and ecosystems of the Mid-Atlantic Region. Climate Research 14: 235-244.

    Description

    Wetland habitat loss, less potential in ameliorating negative effects of high streamflows and pollution runoff.

  • Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Ja ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Jacobs & J.H. Gentile (2005): Total system conceptual ecological model. Wetlands 25(4): 955-979.

    Description

    Three external drivers create stressors: 1. water management; 2. land-use management and development; 3. climate change and sea-level rise. Stressors include: loss of spatial extent; loss of connectivity; altered geomorphology and topography; Altered volume, timing, and distribution of regional hydropatterns; input of nutrients; altered fire patterns; and introduction and spread of exotic plants and animals. Ecological effects relate to hydroperiod and depth patterns, sheet flow, salinity gradients, nutrient status and dynamics, fire patterns, habitat availability, and marsh aquatic fauna prey bases. Key ecological indicators are identified.

• Abiotic indicators

  • Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention) / Eimers, M.C., Watmough, S.A., Buttle, J.M., ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic indicators
    Indicator	Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention)

    Reference

    Eimers, M.C., Watmough, S.A., Buttle, J.M., Dillon, P.J. (2008): Examination of the potential relationship between droughts, sulphate and dissolved organic carbon at a wetland-draining stream. Global Change Biology 14(4): 938-948. (Euro-limpacs paper)

    Description

    Rising dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations observed at a number of sites in the northern hemisphere over recent decades are the subject of much debate, and recent reports suggest a link between DOC patterns in surface waters and changes in sulphate (SO₄) related to droughts or deposition. In order to investigate the potential influence of changes in SO₄ concentration on DOC patterns in south-central Ontario, we used long-term (1980?2001) stream monitoring data from a wetland-dominated catchment (Plastic Lake-1 subcatchment, PC1) that has been the focus of intensive investigations of both SO₄ and DOC dynamics. Annual average volume-weighted DOC concentration increased significantly between 1980 and 2001, whereas SO₄ concentration declined, but the decrease was not significant due to large increases in SO₄ that occurred during drought years. There was no relationship between SO₄ and DOC in annual data series; however, seasonal analyses indicated significant negative correlations between SO₄ and DOC concentrations in spring (March?April?May), summer (June?July?August) and fall (September?October?November). In spring, DOC concentration was negatively correlated with flow whereas SO₄ concentrations increased with flow, and their opposing relationships with discharge explain the negative correlation between SO4 and DOC in this season. In summer and fall, low SO₄ concentrations occur during periods of low flow as a result of microbial SO₄ reduction, whereas correspondingly high DOC concentrations in the summer and fall can be attributed to optimal conditions (i.e. stagnant flow, warm temperatures) for DOC production in the wetland. Increases in SO₄ (and acidity) following droughts were not associated with declines in DOC; instead the primary impact of droughts on DOC was to limit DOC export due to diminished stream flow. Rather than an acidification effect, we suggest that negative relationships between SO4 and DOC were either directly (spring) or indirectly (summer/fall) caused by underlying relationships with hydrology.

  • Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention) / Eimers, M.C., Watmough, S.A., Buttle, J.M., ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic indicators
    Indicator	Carbon cycling change (DOC release/retention)

    Reference

    Eimers, M.C., Watmough, S.A., Buttle, J.M., Dillon, P.J. (2008): Examination of the potential relationship between droughts, sulphate and dissolved organic carbon at a wetland-draining stream. Global Change Biology 14(4): 938-948.

    Description

    Rising dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations observed at a number of sites in the northern hemisphere over recent decades are the subject of much debate, and recent reports suggest a link between DOC patterns in surface waters and changes in sulphate (SO₄) related to droughts or deposition. In order to investigate the potential influence of changes in SO₄ concentration on DOC patterns in south-central Ontario, we used long-term (1980-2001) stream monitoring data from a wetland-dominated catchment (Plastic Lake-1 subcatchment, PC1) that has been the focus of intensive investigations of both SO₄ and DOC dynamics. Annual average volume-weighted DOC concentration increased significantly between 1980 and 2001, whereas SO₄ concentration declined, but the decrease was not significant due to large increases in SO₄ that occurred during drought years. There was no relationship between SO₄ and DOC in annual data series; however, seasonal analyses indicated significant negative correlations between SO₄ and DOC concentrations in spring (March-April-May), summer (June-July-August) and fall (September-October-November). In spring, DOC concentration was negatively correlated with flow whereas SO₄ concentrations increased with flow, and their opposing relationships with discharge explain the negative correlation between SO₄ and DOC in this season. In summer and fall, low SO₄ concentrations occur during periods of low flow as a result of microbial SO₄ reduction, whereas correspondingly high DOC concentrations in the summer and fall can be attributed to optimal conditions (i.e. stagnant flow, warm temperatures) for DOC production in the wetland. Increases in SO₄ (and acidity) following droughts were not associated with declines in DOC; instead the primary impact of droughts on DOC was to limit DOC export due to diminished stream flow. Rather than an acidification effect, we suggest that negative relationships between SO₄ and DOC were either directly (spring) or indirectly (summer/fall) caused by underlying relationships with hydrology.

  • Drought-induced metal peaks, release to wetlands and rivers / Adkinson, A., Watmough, S.A., Dillon, P.J. (2 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic indicators
    Indicator	Drought-induced metal peaks, release to wetlands and rivers

    Reference

    Adkinson, A., Watmough, S.A., Dillon, P.J. (2008): Drought-induced metal release from a wetland at Plastic Lake, central Ontario. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 65(5): 834-845. (Euro-limpacs paper)

    Description

    With climate change, droughts may become more frequent in southern Ontario, which could release metals from peat and degrade downstream water quality. Monthly volume-weighted metal (Al, Ba, Be, Cd, Co, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sr, and Zn) concentrations and fluxes in streams and bulk deposition at Plastic Lake were monitored over 20 months in 2002-2003, during which there was a summer drought. Monthly concentrations in the outflow from the wetland (PC1) were variable, with very high concentrations following the drought. With the exception of Pb, statistically significant models of metal concentrations with SO₄^2- and dissolved organic carbon concentrations were developed, and these relationships were used to estimate monthly metal exports between 1980 and 2000. Model predictions for Cd and Zn in PC1 agreed well (p <0.001) with concentrations measured between 1989 and 1991. Model predictions suggesting peaks in metal concentrations are common in years with pronounced summer droughts. In contrast to ombrotrophic bogs, the PC1 wetland receives the majority of its metal input from the terrestrial catchment, and mass balance approximations indicate no substantial depletion of metal reserves in peat. Drought-induced metal peaks may persist for many decades, potentially contributing to the delayed recovery of surface waters at Plastic Lake, despite declining S deposition.

  • Drought-induced metal peaks, release to wetlands and rivers / Adkinson, A., Watmough, S.A., Dillon, P.J. (2 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Abiotic indicators
    Indicator	Drought-induced metal peaks, release to wetlands and rivers

    Reference

    Adkinson, A., Watmough, S.A., Dillon, P.J. (2008): Drought-induced metal release from a wetland at Plastic Lake, central Ontario. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 65(5): 834-845.

    Description

    With climate change, droughts may become more frequent in southern Ontario, which could release metals from peat and degrade downstream water quality. Monthly volume-weighted metal (Al, Ba, Be, Cd, Co, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sr, and Zn) concentrations and fluxes in streams and bulk deposition at Plastic Lake were monitored over 20 months in 2002-2003, during which there was a summer drought. Monthly concentrations in the outflow from the wetland (PC1) were variable, with very high concentrations following the drought. With the exception of Pb, statistically significant models of metal concentrations with SO₄^2- and dissolved organic carbon concentrations were developed, and these relationships were used to estimate monthly metal exports between 1980 and 2000. Model predictions for Cd and Zn in PC1 agreed well (p < 0.001) with concentrations measured between 1989 and 1991. Model predictions suggesting peaks in metal concentrations are common in years with pronounced summer droughts. In contrast to ombrotrophic bogs, the PC1 wetland receives the majority of its metal input from the terrestrial catchment, and mass balance approximations indicate no substantial depletion of metal reserves in peat. Drought-induced metal peaks may persist for many decades, potentially contributing to the delayed recovery of surface waters at Plastic Lake, despite declining S deposition.

• Early warning indicators

  • Water table, drought, hydrology / Johnson, W.C., S.E. Boettcher, K.A. Poiani &a ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Early warning indicators
    Indicator	Water table, drought, hydrology

    Reference

    Johnson, W.C., S.E. Boettcher, K.A. Poiani & G. Gunterspergen (2004): Influence Of Weather Extremes On The Water Levels Of Glaciated Prairie Wetlands. Wetlands 24(2): 385-398.

    Description

    Semi-permanent, seasonal and temporary wetlands differed sharply in water levels between dry and wet periods. Ground-water levels near semi-permanent wetlands more stable than those near temporary wetlands. Weather extremes drive the wetland cover cycle. Baseflow: The stream was fed by discharging shallow, anoxic groundwater without nitrogen and by deep, oxic groundwater with nitrogen (similar to 0-37 mg l^-1). Stormflow: near-surface runoff in the upper 30 cut soil layer bypassed the denitrifying zone and added significant amounts to the nitrogen load of the stream. Nitrate-nitrogen was close to 100% of deep groundwater and stream-water nitrogen concentration. Stream-water baseflow concentrations of nitrate, dissolved carbon and silica were about 1.6 mg l^-1, 4 mg l^-1 and 7.5 mg l^-1 respectively, and > 3 mg l^-1, > 10 mg l^-1 and < 4 mg l^-1 respectively during discharge peaks.

  • Water table, drought, hydrology / Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Ja ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Early warning indicators
    Indicator	Water table, drought, hydrology

    Reference

    Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Jacobs & J.H. Gentile (2005): Total system conceptual ecological model. Wetlands 25(4): 955-979.

    Description

    Three external drivers create stressors: 1. water management; 2. land-use management and development; 3. climate change and sea-level rise. Stressors include: loss of spatial extent; loss of connectivity; altered geomorphology and topography; Altered volume, timing, and distribution of regional hydropatterns; input of nutrients; altered fire patterns; and introduction and spread of exotic plants and animals. Ecological effects relate to hydroperiod and depth patterns, sheet flow, salinity gradients, nutrient status and dynamics, fire patterns, habitat availability, and marsh aquatic fauna prey bases. Key ecological indicators are identified.

  • Water/soil temperature / Fenner, N., D.J. Dowrick, M.A. Lock, C.R. Raf ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Early warning indicators
    Indicator	Water/soil temperature

    Reference

    Fenner, N., D.J. Dowrick, M.A. Lock, C.R. Rafarel & C. Freeman (2006): A novel approach to studying the effects of temperature on soil biogeochemistry using a thermal gradient bar. Soil Use and Management 22(3): 267-273.

    Description

    Peat: no significant emission of CH₄ at T< 6 °C, marked CH₄ release increase at T >6 to <15 °C (Q(10) = 2.5) with emissions being similar between 15 and 18 °C. Forest soil: CH₄ emissions did not respond to warming. Nitrate availability in the peat decreased by 90% between 2 and 18 °C (P < 0.01), whereas concentrations in the forest soil did not respond. Sulphate availability in the peat decreased significantly with warming (60%, P < 0.01), while the forest soil showed the opposite response (a 30% increase, P < 0.01). Thermal responses will differ depending on land use and soil type.

• Primary production: plants

  • Community change, diversity change / Hudon, C. (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Community change, diversity change

    Reference

    Hudon, C. (2004): Shift in wetland plant composition and biomass following low-level episodes in the St. Lawrence River: looking into the future. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 61(4): 603-617.

    Description

    Water temperature 2-3 °C warmer (comparison 1931-1999), low water levels: Invasion by various Graminea (including Phalaris arundinacea and Phragmites australis) and facultative annual species. Submerged species (shallow waters) replaced on dry ground by annual terrestrial plants; Alisma gramineum colonized emergent waterlogged mudflats. Spatially discontinuous plant biomass richer in terrestrial material. Decline of assemblages dominated by Equisetum spp. and Najas flexilis, rise of those dominated by Lythrum salicaria, Potamogeton spp., and filamentous algae. These shifts reveal the additional effects of nutrient enrichment, alien species, and shoreline alteration accompanying a change from a mostly agricultural to a mostly urbanized and industrialized landscape.

  • Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change / Wieder R.K. & J.B. Yavitt (1994): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change

    Reference

    Wieder R.K. & J.B. Yavitt (1994): Peatlands and global climate change – insights from comparative studies of sites situated along a latitudinal gradient. Wetlands 14(3): 229-238.

    Description

    Latitude effect: CH₄ emissions; Sphagnum growth rate. Photosynthesis effect: carbon emissions from peatland soils. Productivity, biomass effect: rate of growth; C emissions. Use of wetland ecosystems at different latitude to assess potential changes under climate change.

  • Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change / van Noordwijk, M., P. Martikainen, P. Bottner ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change

    Reference

    van Noordwijk, M., P. Martikainen, P. Bottner, E. Cuevas, C. Rouland & S.S. Dhillion (1998): Global change and root function. Global Change Biology 4(7): 759-772.

    Description

    A number of possible mechanisms for root-mediated N mineralization is discussed in the light of climate change factors. Rhizovory (root consumption) may increase under global change as the balance between plant chemical defense and adapted root- consuming organisms may be modified during biome shifts in response to climate change. Root-mediated gas exchange allows oxygen to penetrate into soils and methane (CH₄) to escape from wetland soils of tundra ecosystems as well as tropical rice production systems. The effect on net greenhouse gas emissions of biome shifts (fens replacing bogs) as well as of agricultural land management will depend partly on aerenchyma in roots.

  • Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change / Rasse, D.P., G. Peresta & P.G. Drake (200 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change

    Reference

    Rasse, D.P., G. Peresta & P.G. Drake (2005): Seventeen years of elevated CO₂ exposure in a Chesapeake Bay Wetland: sustained but contrasting responses of plant growth and CO₂ uptake. Global Change Biology 11(3): 369-377.

    Description

    A species response to elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration can continually increase when this species is under stress and declining in its natural environment. Climate changes associated with elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration are likely to increase environmental stresses on numerous species and modify their present distribution. Our results point to an increased resilience to change under elevated Ca when plants are exposed to adverse environmental conditions.

  • Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change, species distribution / Middleton, B.A. & K.L. McKee (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change, species distribution

    Reference

    Middleton, B.A. & K.L. McKee (2004): Use of a latitudinal gradient in bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) production to examine controls of biotic boundaries and potential responses to environmental change. Global Ecology and Biogeography 13: 247-258.

    Description

    Changing temperature with latitudinal gradient determins distribution of Taxodium distichum. Litterfall rates follow bell shaped curve, production more limited at distributional boundaries. Future changes in global temperature would affect litter production in nonlinear manner. Local changes in hydrology may interact with climate change further and reduce litter production particularly at lower latitudes.

  • Loss of native species, exotic species increase / Davidson, E.A. & P. Artaxo (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Loss of native species, exotic species increase

    Reference

    Davidson, E.A. & P. Artaxo (2004): Globally significant changes in biological processes of the Amazon Basin: results of the large-scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment. Global Change Biology 10: 519-529.

    Description

    Abiotic incidators:Reduced precipitation. Drought, reduced evapo-transpiration, increased fire susceptability, decreased leaf area, feedback on evapo-transpiration. Change in ratio of annual sinks of atmospheric carbon dioxide (intact forest) to annual sources of atmospheric methane and nitrous oxide (wetlands). Amazonian forest-river system currently nearly balanced in terms of the net 100-year global warming potential of these gases.

    Primary Production: Plants Drought: Proportional loss of native species and influx of invasives; move towards dicotyledonous species. Drought and fire may increase in frequency and severity because of global warming. Two years after burns and transplantations upslope, dicotyledonous species' density and richness increased 3- to 36-fold on soil blocks moved upslope to the driest vegetation zone relative to unmoved soil blocks. Eurasian species, Sonchus arvensis and Cirsium arvense, increased 5- to 13-fold after drought treatment. Fire, particularly the deepest burn, reduced graminoid density and height up to 90%. It is hypothesized that, under climate change conditions, Eurasian species might dominate early successional communities in mid-boreal wetlands.

  • Loss of native species, exotic species increase / Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Ja ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Loss of native species, exotic species increase

    Reference

    Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Jacobs & J.H. Gentile (2005): Total system conceptual ecological model. Wetlands 25(4): 955-979.

    Description

    Three external drivers create stressors: 1. water management; 2. land-use management and development; 3. climate change and sea-level rise. Stressors include: loss of spatial extent; loss of connectivity; altered geomorphology and topography; Altered volume, timing, and distribution of regional hydropatterns; input of nutrients; altered fire patterns; and introduction and spread of exotic plants and animals. Ecological effects relate to hydroperiod and depth patterns, sheet flow, salinity gradients, nutrient status and dynamics, fire patterns, habitat availability, and marsh aquatic fauna prey bases. Key ecological indicators are identified.

  • Loss of native species, exotic species increase, riparian vegetation change, growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change / Carpenter, S.R., S.G. Fisher, N.B. Grimm & ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Loss of native species, exotic species increase, riparian vegetation change, growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change

    Reference

    Carpenter, S.R., S.G. Fisher, N.B. Grimm & J.F. Kitchell (1992): Global change and freshwater ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23: 119-139.

    Description

    Altered riparian vegetation (herbal vegetation and trees), and altered biomass and productivity, exotic species. Effect on detrivores: Slowed decomposition. Altered aquatic communities.

  • Paludification or forest succession / Crawford, R.M.M., C.E. Jeffree & W.G. Ree ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Paludification or forest succession

    Reference

    Crawford, R.M.M., C.E. Jeffree & W.G. Rees (2003): Paludification and forest retreat in northern oceanic environments. Annals of Botany 91: 213-226.

    Description

    A southward depression of the treeline in favour of wet heaths, bogs and wetland tundra communities is observed in northern oceanic environments. Climatic warming in oceanic areas may increase the area covered by bogs and, contrary to general expectations, lead to a retreat rather than an advance in the northern limit of the boreal forest. Physiological and ecological factors may interact to inhibit forest regeneration in habitats where there is a risk of prolonged winter-flooding combined with warmer winters and cool moist summers.

  • Riparian vegetation change / Primack, A.G.B. (2000): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Riparian vegetation change

    Reference

    Primack, A.G.B. (2000): Simulation of climate-change effects on riparian vegetation in the Pere Marquette River, Michigan. Wetlands 20(3): 538-547.

    Description

    Four vegetation classes were identified at the field site (Alnus, Open-Viburnum, Fraxinus-Carpinus, and Acer-Tsuga). The areal extent of vegetation classes at the field site may change by up to 27%.

  • Sensitivity depending on plant traits and niche properties / Thuiller, W., S. Lavorel & M.B Araujo (20 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Sensitivity depending on plant traits and niche properties

    Reference

    Thuiller, W., S. Lavorel & M.B Araujo (2005): Niche properties and geographical extent as predictors of species sensitivity to climate change. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 14(4): 347-357.

    Description

    Niche properties are a good indicator of species sensitivities to climate change. Review of temperature effects on niche as indicators of potential species survival. Macrophytes: emissons of CH₄. Direct link between coverage of macrophytes and ebullition of CH₄.

  • Sensitivity depending on plant traits and niche properties / Deil, U. (2005): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Sensitivity depending on plant traits and niche properties

    Reference

    Deil, U. (2005): A review on habitats, plant traits and vegetation of ephemeral wetlands - a global perspective. Phytocoenologia 35(2-3): 533-705.

    Description

    Latitude effect: relations between relief features, local hydrology and climatic conditions; provision of niche; habitat type. Indicator functional groups: presence and equivalence of wetland floral species.

  • Sensitivity depending on plant traits and niche properties / Lessmann J.M., H. Brix, V. Bauer, O.A. Clever ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Sensitivity depending on plant traits and niche properties

    Reference

    Lessmann J.M., H. Brix, V. Bauer, O.A. Clevering &, F.A. Comin (2001): Effect of climatic gradients on the photosynthetic responses of four Phragmites australis populations. Aquatic Botany 69(2-4): 109-126.

    Description

    Emergent macrophytes Phragmites: photosynthetic performance affected by latitude; phenotypic plasticity. Plants grown in the more northerly climates appeared to be more photosynthetically limited through lower P-max values and lower phi (i) levels. The higher P-max levels in the southern climate were correlated with higher nutrient levels in the tissue of leaves. The results are discussed in relation to the prospected global climate change.

  • Species distribution / Hudon, C., D. Wilcox & J. Ingram (2006) ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Species distribution

    Reference

    Hudon, C., D. Wilcox & J. Ingram (2006): Modeling wetland plant community response to assess water-level regulation scenarios in the Lake Ontario-St. Lawrence River basin. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 113(1-3): 303-328.

    Description

    General approach, scientific methodology and applied management considerations of studies quantifying the relationships between hydrology and wetland plant assemblages (% occurrence, surface area). Performance indicators (metrics), such as total area of wetland in meadow marsh vegetation type, that link wetland response to water levels will be used to assess the effects of different regulation plans under current and future (climate change) water-supply scenarios.

  • Substrate quality / Rouse, W.R., D.W. Carlson & E.J. Weick (1 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Substrate quality

    Reference

    Rouse, W.R., D.W. Carlson & E.J. Weick (1992): Impacts of summer warming on the energy and water balance of wetland tundra. Climatic Change 22(4): 305-326.

    Description

    Studied hot-dry, normal-dry and normal-wet growing seasons. For periods of comparable energy availability, evapotranspiration during hot-dry conditions can be larger than during cooler and wetter periods. This results from small stomatal resistance in the sparse canopy of well-rooted sedges, and from the ability of peat soils to supply water under conditions of large atmospheric demand. A dry year promotes deeper thaw depths in the permafrost soils, during the growing season, than does a wet one. This is due to larger ground heat fluxes and larger soil thermal diffusivities. We conclude that maritime, wetland tundra, growing on peat soils, displays feedback mechanisms that can offset the effects of moisture stress caused by summer climate warming.

• Secondary production - fish

  • Fish distribution, richness, abundance change / Schindler, D.W. (2001): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Secondary production - fish
    Indicator	Fish distribution, richness, abundance change

    Reference

    Schindler, D.W. (2001): The cumulative effects of climate warming and other human stresses on Canadian freshwaters in the new millennium. Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58: 18-29.

    Description

    Increased draught, weaker spring flows, less inundation. Leads to disappearing wetlands. Demise of fisheries, of waterfowl and muskrat populations.

  • Fish distribution, richness, abundance change / Beechie T., E. Buhle, M. Ruckelshaus, A. Full ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Secondary production - fish
    Indicator	Fish distribution, richness, abundance change

    Reference

    Beechie T., E. Buhle, M. Ruckelshaus, A. Fullerton & L. Holsinger (2006): Hydrologic regime and the conservation of salmon life history diversity. Biological Conservation 130(4): 560-572.

    Description

    Temperature effect: changed proportions of snow-melt and rainwater. Land use changes: barrier effects of dams. Assesses optimal upstream conditions for salmon (spawning and juveniles) in relation to snow melt and presence of dams. Review on habitat variability and salmon recruitment success.

• Secondary production - invertebrates

  • Species distribution, richness, abundance change / Thomas, J.A. (2005): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Secondary production - invertebrates
    Indicator	Species distribution, richness, abundance change

    Reference

    Thomas, J.A. (2005): Monitoring change in the abundance and distribution of insects using butterflies and other indicator groups. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society - Biological Sciences 360(1454): 339-357.

    Description

    General review, includes aquatic habitats. Assessment of the use of species monitoring, especially butterflies, for detection of ecosystem change, including climate change.

  • Species distribution, richness, abundance change / Eyre, M.D. (2006): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Secondary production - invertebrates
    Indicator	Species distribution, richness, abundance change

    Reference

    Eyre, M.D. (2006): A strategic interpretation of beetle (Coleoptera) assemblages, biotopes, habitats and distribution, and the conservation implications. Journal of Insect Conservation 10(2): 151-160.

    Description

    Coleoptera: Productivity of exposed riverine sediment ground beetle biotopes was dependent on deposited organic matter and disturbance on the effects of water flow on site structure. With both ground beetle biotopes, the distribution of assemblages was also affected by substrate water, another abiotic driver. Productivity in aquatic beetle biotopes was a function of base-status, generally reflected by pH, whilst disturbance was mainly due to water flow and wave action.

• Susceptibility ecosystem

  • Groundwater / Johnson, W.C., S.E. Boettcher, K.A. Poiani &a ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Groundwater

    Reference

    Johnson, W.C., S.E. Boettcher, K.A. Poiani & G. Gunterspergen (2004): Influence Of Weather Extremes On The Water Levels Of Glaciated Prairie Wetlands. Wetlands 24(2): 385-398.

    Description

    Semi-permanent, seasonal and temporary wetlands differed sharply in water levels between dry and wet periods. Ground-water levels near semi-permanent wetlands more stable than those near temporary wetlands. Weather extremes drive the wetland cover cycle. Baseflow: The stream was fed by discharging shallow, anoxic groundwater without nitrogen and by deep, oxic groundwater with nitrogen (similar to 0-37 mg l^-1). Stormflow: near-surface runoff in the upper 30 cut soil layer bypassed the denitrifying zone and added significant amounts to the nitrogen load of the stream. Nitrate-nitrogen was close to 100% of deep groundwater and stream-water nitrogen concentration. Stream-water baseflow concentrations of nitrate, dissolved carbon and silica were about 1.6 mg l^-1, 4 mg l^-1 and 7.5 mg l^-1 respectively, and > 3 mg l^-1, > 10 mg l^-1 and < 4 mg l^-1 respectively during discharge peaks.

  • Groundwater / Lischeid, G., A. Kolb, C. Alewell & S. Pa ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Groundwater

    Reference

    Lischeid, G., A. Kolb, C. Alewell & S. Paul (2007): Impact of redox and transport processes in a riparian wetland on stream water quality in the Fichtelgebirge region, southern Germany. Hydrological Processes 21(1): 123-132.

    Description

    Baseflow: The stream was fed by discharging shallow, anoxic groundwater without nitrogen and by deep, oxic groundwater with nitrogen (similar to 0-37 mg l^-1). Stormflow: near-surface runoff in the upper 30 cut soil layer bypassed the denitrifying zone and added significant amounts to the nitrogen load of the stream. Nitrate-nitrogen was close to 100% of deep groundwater and stream-water nitrogen concentration. Stream-water baseflow concentrations of nitrate, dissolved carbon and silica were about 1.6 mg l^-1, 4 mg l^-1 and 7.5 mg l^-1 respectively, and > 3 mg l^-1, > 10 mg l^-1 and < 4 mg l^-1 respectively during discharge peaks.

  • Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase) / Brinson, M.M. & A.I. Malvarez (2002): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase)

    Reference

    Brinson, M.M. & A.I. Malvarez (2002): Temperate freshwater wetlands: types, status, and threats. Environmental Conservation 29(2): 115-133.

    Description

    Temperature effect: Water abstractions. Review of a range of impacts on different wetland types. One trend is that the more industrialised countries are likely to conserve their already impacted, remaining wetlands, while nations with less industrialisation are now experiencing accelerated losses, and may continue to do so for the next several decades.

  • Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase) / Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Ja ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase)

    Reference

    Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Jacobs & J.H. Gentile (2005): Total system conceptual ecological model. Wetlands 25(4): 955-979.

    Description

    Three external drivers create stressors: 1. water management; 2. land-use management and development; 3. climate change and sea-level rise. Stressors include: loss of spatial extent; loss of connectivity; altered geomorphology and topography; Altered volume, timing, and distribution of regional hydropatterns; input of nutrients; altered fire patterns; and introduction and spread of exotic plants and animals. Ecological effects relate to hydroperiod and depth patterns, sheet flow, salinity gradients, nutrient status and dynamics, fire patterns, habitat availability, and marsh aquatic fauna prey bases. Key ecological indicators are identified.

  • Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase) / Beechie T., E. Buhle, M. Ruckelshaus, A. Full ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase)

    Reference

    Beechie T., E. Buhle, M. Ruckelshaus, A. Fullerton & L. Holsinger (2006): Hydrologic regime and the conservation of salmon life history diversity. Biological Conservation 130(4): 560-572.

    Description

    Temperature effect: changed proportions of snow-melt and rainwater. Land use changes: barrier effects of dams. Assesses optimal upstream conditions for salmon (spawning and juveniles) in relation to snow melt and presence of dams. Review on habitat variability and salmon recruitment success.

  • Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase) / Hudon, C. (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase)

    Reference

    Hudon, C. (2004): Shift in wetland plant composition and biomass following low-level episodes in the St. Lawrence River: looking into the future. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 61(4): 603-617.

    Description

    Water temperature 2-3 °C warmer (comparison 1931-1999), low water levels: Invasion by various Graminea (including Phalaris arundinacea and Phragmites australis) and facultative annual species. Submerged species (shallow waters) replaced on dry ground by annual terrestrial plants; Alisma gramineum colonized emergent waterlogged mudflats. Spatially discontinuous plant biomass richer in terrestrial material. Decline of assemblages dominated by Equisetum spp. and Najas flexilis, rise of those dominated by Lythrum salicaria, Potamogeton spp., and filamentous algae. These shifts reveal the additional effects of nutrient enrichment, alien species, and shoreline alteration accompanying a change from a mostly agricultural to a mostly urbanized and industrialized landscape.

  • Soil type / Zeeb, P.J. & H.F. Hemond (1998): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Soil type

    Reference

    Zeeb, P.J. & H.F. Hemond (1998): Hydrologic response of a wetland to changing moisture conditions: Modeling effects of soil heterogeneity. Climatic Change 40(2): 211-227.

    Description

    Precipitation: Wetland hydrology and flooding: Heterogeneity of soil type has effect on hydraulic flow, flow properties, hydraulic conductivity. Method for mapping soil heterogeneity and its implications for hydraulic conductance.

  • Soil type / Bridgham, S.D., K. Updegraff & J. Pastor ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Soil type

    Reference

    Bridgham, S.D., K. Updegraff & J. Pastor (1998): Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus mineralization in northern wetlands. Ecology 79(5): 1545-1561.

    Description

    Mineralization of C, N, and P differed significantly among wetland types. On a volumetric basis, C and N mineralization increased in a predictable manner across the ombrotrophic-minerotrophic gradient, largely due to increasing soil bulk density, however, P mineralization per cubic centimeter remained relatively high in the bogs. Large differences in mineralization rates in northern wetland communities demonstrate that climate change models should not consider these areas as homogeneous entities. The common perception that more ombrotrophic sites are inherently more nutrient deficient needs to be reassessed.

  • Soil type / Schwarzel, K., J. Simunek, M.Th. van Genuchte ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Soil type

    Reference

    Schwarzel, K., J. Simunek, M.Th. van Genuchten & G. Wessolek (2006): Measurement and modeling of soil-water dynamics and evapotranspiration of drained peatland soils. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science-Zeitschrift Für Pflanzenernahrung und Bodenkunde 169(6): 762-774.

    Description

    Evapotranspiration rates during dry years depended very much on upward capillary flow from the water table and hence on the soil hydraulic properties. During wet years, however, ET was controlled mostly by the evaporative demand of the atmosphere, and much less by the soil hydraulic properties.

  • Soil type / Fenner, N., D.J. Dowrick, M.A. Lock, C.R. Raf ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Soil type

    Reference

    Fenner, N., D.J. Dowrick, M.A. Lock, C.R. Rafarel & C. Freeman (2006): A novel approach to studying the effects of temperature on soil biogeochemistry using a thermal gradient bar. Soil Use and Management 22(3): 267-273.

    Description

    Peat: no significant emission of CH₄ at T< 6 °C, marked CH₄ release increase at T >6 to <15 °C (Q(10) = 2.5) with emissions being similar between 15 and 18 °C. Forest soil: CH₄ emissions did not respond to warming. Nitrate availability in the peat decreased by 90% between 2 and 18 °C (P < 0.01), whereas concentrations in the forest soil did not respond. Sulphate availability in the peat decreased significantly with warming (60%, P < 0.01), while the forest soil showed the opposite response (a 30% increase, P < 0.01). Thermal responses will differ depending on land use and soil type.

• Vertebrates

  • Amphibians: no major effect (except distribution depends on wetland extension) / Diamond, S.A., G.S. Peterson, J.E. Tietge &am ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Amphibians: no major effect (except distribution depends on wetland extension)

    Reference

    Diamond, S.A., G.S. Peterson, J.E. Tietge & G.T. Ankley (2002): Assessment of the risk of solar ultraviolet radiation to amphibians. III. Prediction of impacts in selected northern midwestern wetlands. Environmental Science & Technology 36(13): 2866-2874.

    Description

    Variation in ultraviolet solar radiation (UVB 280-320 nm): Amphibians: Risk of mortality and malformations due to solar radiation currently low for majority of wetlands evaluated. (Rana pipiens, R. clamitans, R. septentrionalis).

  • Amphibians: no major effect (except distribution depends on wetlandl extension) / Freidenburg, L.K. & D.K. Skelly (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Amphibians: no major effect (except distribution depends on wetlandl extension)

    Reference

    Freidenburg, L.K. & D.K. Skelly (2004): Microgeographical variation in thermal preference by an amphibian. Ecology Letters 7: 369-373.

    Description

    Temperature effect on egg masses of Rana sylvatica from heavily shaded to open wetland ponds. Experimental temperature gradients in troughs. Localized selection leading to countergradient patterns of thermal preference behaviour: Larvae from closed canopy ponds are more strongly temperature selective and prefer higher temperatures than conspecifics from populations of open canopy ponds. In modelling responses of animals to climate change it should be accounted for rapid behavioral evolution.

  • Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution / Schindler, D.W. (2001): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution

    Reference

    Schindler, D.W. (2001): The cumulative effects of climate warming and other human stresses on Canadian freshwaters in the new millennium. Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58: 18-29.

    Description

    Increased draught, weaker spring flows, less inundation. Leads to disappearing wetlands. Demise of fisheries, of waterfowl and muskrat populations.

  • Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution / Zalakevicius M. & R. Zalakeviciute (2001) ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution

    Reference

    Zalakevicius M. & R. Zalakeviciute (2001): Global climate change impact on birds: a review of research in Lithuania. Folia Zoologica 50(1): 1-17.

    Description

    Timing of spring arrival.

  • Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution / Gillings, S., G.E. Austin, R. Fuller & W. ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	riverine
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution

    Reference

    Gillings, S., G.E. Austin, R. Fuller & W.J. Sutherland (2006): Distribution shifts in wintering golden plover Pluvialis apricaria and lapwing Vanellus vanellus in Britain. Bird Study 53: 274-284.

    Description

    The winter distribution of Golden Plover (Pluvialis apricaria) and Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) has shifted east since the mid-1980s, perhaps in response to climate change.
• 
  

  Lakeside

  Abiotic incidators

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Davidson, E.A. & P. Artaxo (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Davidson, E.A. & P. Artaxo (2004): Globally significant changes in biological processes of the Amazon Basin: results of the large-scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment. Global Change Biology 10: 519-529.

    Description

    Abiotic incidators:Reduced precipitation. Drought, reduced evapo-transpiration, increased fire susceptability, decreased leaf area, feedback on evapo-transpiration. Change in ratio of annual sinks of atmospheric carbon dioxide (intact forest) to annual sources of atmospheric methane and nitrous oxide (wetlands). Amazonian forest-river system currently nearly balanced in terms of the net 100-year global warming potential of these gases.

    Primary Production: Plants Drought: Proportional loss of native species and influx of invasives; move towards dicotyledonous species. Drought and fire may increase in frequency and severity because of global warming. Two years after burns and transplantations upslope, dicotyledonous species' density and richness increased 3- to 36-fold on soil blocks moved upslope to the driest vegetation zone relative to unmoved soil blocks. Eurasian species, Sonchus arvensis and Cirsium arvense, increased 5- to 13-fold after drought treatment. Fire, particularly the deepest burn, reduced graminoid density and height up to 90%. It is hypothesized that, under climate change conditions, Eurasian species might dominate early successional communities in mid-boreal wetlands.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Werner, C., K. Davis, P. Bakwin, C. Yi, D. Hu ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Werner, C., K. Davis, P. Bakwin, C. Yi, D. Hurst & L. Lock (2003): Regional-scale measurements of CH₄ exchange from a tall tower over a mixed temperate/boreal lowland and wetland forest. Global Change Biology 9(9): 1251-1261.

    Description

    Seasonal and interannual temperature variation: Maximum soil temperatures coincide with maximum CH₄ emission values. Reduced precipitation: Reduced water table levels suppressed CH₄ emissions. Long-term climatic changes reducing water table may transform this landscape to reduced emission or sink for atmospheric CH₄.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Thuiller, W., S. Lavorel & M.B Araujo (20 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Thuiller, W., S. Lavorel & M.B Araujo (2005): Niche properties and geographical extent as predictors of species sensitivity to climate change. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 14(4): 347-357.

    Description

    Niche properties are a good indicator of species sensitivities to climate change. Review of temperature effects on niche as indicators of potential species survival. Macrophytes: emissons of CH₄. Direct link between coverage of macrophytes and ebullition of CH₄.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Walter, B.P., M. Heimann & E. Matthews (2 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Walter, B.P., M. Heimann & E. Matthews (2001): Modeling modern methane emissions from natural wetlands 1. Model description and results. Journal of Geophysical Reseach - Atmospheres 106(D24): 34189-34206.

    Description

    The global methane-hydrology model constitutes a tool to study temporal and spatial variations in methane emissions from natural wetlands. To investigate the response of methane emissions from natural wetlands to climate variations, a process-based model that derives methane emissions from natural wetlands as a function of soil temperature, water table, and net primary productivity is used. We calculate global annual methane emissions from wetlands to be 260 Tg yr^-1. Twenty-five percent of these methane emissions originate from wetlands north of 30 °N. Only 60% of the produced methane is emitted, while the rest is reoxidized.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Brix, H., B.K. Sorrell & B. Lorenzen (200 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Brix, H., B.K. Sorrell & B. Lorenzen (2001): Are phragmites-dominated wetlands a net source or net sink of greenhouse gases? Aquatic Botany 69(2-4): 313-324.

    Description

    The balance between net CO₂-assimilation and CH₄ emission determines if a wetland can be regarded as a net sink or a net source of greenhouse gases. Wetlands may be regarded as a source for greenhouse gases and so increase radiative forcing if evaluated on a short time scale (decades), but as a sink for greenhouse gases and thus attenuating radiative forcing if evaluated over longer time scales (>100 years).

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Hargreaves, K.J., D. Fowler, C.E.R. Pitcairn ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Hargreaves, K.J., D. Fowler, C.E.R. Pitcairn & M. Aurela (2001): Annual methane emission from Finnish mires estimated from eddy covariance campaign measurements. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 70(1-4): 203-213.

    Description

    The effect of global warming on the CH₄ budget of the site was estimated using the central scenario of the SILMU (Finnish Research Programme on Climate Change) model which predicts annual mean temperature increases of 1.2, 2.4 and 4.4 °C in 2020, 2050 and 2100, respectively. Maximum enhancements in CH₄ emission due to warming were calculated to be 18, 40 and 84% for 2020, 2050 and 2100, respectively. Actual increases may be smaller because prediction of changes in water table are highly uncertain.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Whiting, G.J. & J.P. Chanton (2001): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Whiting, G.J. & J.P. Chanton (2001): Greenhouse carbon balance of wetlands: methane emission versus carbon sequestration. Tellus Series B – Chemical and Physical Meteorology 53(5): 521-528.

    Description

    As global warming potential of methane decreases over long time horizons (100 years), our analyses suggest that the subtropical and temperate wetlands attenuate global warming. and northern wetlands may be perched on the "greenhouse compensation" point. Considering a 500-year time horizon, these wetlands can be regarded as sinks for greenhouse gas warming potential, and thus attenuate the greenhouse warming of the atmosphere.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Aurela, M., T. Laurila & J.P. Tuovinen (2 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Aurela, M., T. Laurila & J.P. Tuovinen (2001): Seasonal CO₂ balances of a subarctic mire. Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres 106(D2): 1623-1637.

    Description

    In correspondence to the CO₂ fluxes the strongest sink terms in the daily net ecosystem exchange (NEE) balances of about -6g (CO₂) m^-2d^-1 were observed in July. The highest positive balances of about 4g (CO₂) m^-2d^-1 were observed in early June and in August. The daily balances in April were about 0.6g (CO₂) m^-2d^-1. The net balances for the sink period (June 15 to August 26, 1997) and for the 6-month measurement period were -188 gm^-2 and -30 gm^-2, respectively.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Joiner, D.W., P.M. Lafleur, J.H. McCaughey &a ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Joiner, D.W., P.M. Lafleur, J.H. McCaughey & P.A. Bartlett (1999): Interannual variability in carbon dioxide exchanges at a boreal wetland in the BOREAS northern study area. Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres 104(D22): 27663-27672.

    Description

    Warmer air temperatures and an earlier snowmelt in the spring of 1994, which led to an earlier thaw for the fen surface, and warmer and drier conditions in the fall of 1994 promoted CO₂ production at times when the vascular vegetation was not photosynthesizing. As a result, in 1994 over the study period of 124 days the fen was a net source of CO₂-carbon to the atmosphere, losing 30.8 g C m^-2; for the same period in 1996 the fen was a net sink of CO₂-carbon, assimilating -91.6 g C m^-2.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Dowrick, D.J., Hughes, S., Freeman, C., Lock, ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Dowrick, D.J., Hughes, S., Freeman, C., Lock, M.A., Reynolds, B. & J.A. Hudson (1999): Nitrous oxide emissions from a gully mire in mid-Wales, UK, under simulated summer drought. Biogeochemistry 44(2): 151-162.

    Description

    An eight centimetre drawdown of the water table in a gully mire did not significantly affect nitrous oxide emissions from this site, however, under a more extreme drought scenario carried out on peat monoliths, nitrous oxide emissions increased exponentially with a linear decrease in water table height. Probably, increased emissions were caused by increased nitrous oxide production from denitrification, rather than by increased production from nitrification. In the laboratory, increasing drought severity decreased ammonium concentrations.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Yavitt, J.B., G.E. Lang & A.J. Sexstone ( ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Yavitt, J.B., G.E. Lang & A.J. Sexstone (1990): Methane fluxes in wetland and forest soils, beaver ponds, and low-order streams of a temperate forest ecosystem. Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres 95(D13): 22463-22474.

    Description

    Wetland sites acted as small sources of atmospheric methane. The forest sites were mostly atmospheric methane sinks. Open-water sites were large sources of atmospheric methane. The results of our studies suggest that methane emissions from these /"temperate-like/" ecosystems will not result in a large positive feedback that might exacerbate the rate of global climate warming.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Megonigal, J.P. & W.H. Schlesinger (1997) ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Megonigal, J.P. & W.H. Schlesinger (1997): Enhanced CH₄ emissions from a wetland soil exposed to elevated CO₂. Biogeochemistry 37(1): 77-88.

    Description

    Enhanced CO₂ leads to reduced rates of transpiration. Emegent macrophytes: Growth rate higher under raised CO₂. Possible enhanced CH₄ emissions under raised atmospheric CO₂ concentrations.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission / Wieder R.K. & J.B. Yavitt (1994): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission

    Reference

    Wieder R.K. & J.B. Yavitt (1994): Peatlands and global climate change – insights from comparative studies of sites situated along a latitudinal gradient. Wetlands 14(3): 229-238.

    Description

    Latitude effect: CH₄ emissions; Sphagnum growth rate. Photosynthesis effect: carbon emissions from peatland soils. Productivity, biomass effect: rate of growth; C emissions. Use of wetland ecosystems at different latitude to assess potential changes under climate change.

  • N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission, wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Shindell, D.T., B.P. Walter & G. Faluvegi ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	N-/C-flux, greenhouse gases emission, wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Shindell, D.T., B.P. Walter & G. Faluvegi (2004): Impacts of climate change on methane emissions from wetlands. Geophysical Research Letters 31: L21202

    Description

    Geographic distributions of wetlands: High northern latitude wetland areas expand, methane emissions triple. Doubled CO₂ simulations show rise in annual average methane emission by 78% (enhanced emissions from tropical wetlands). Predicts 20% increase of global totals from natural emissions under climate change.

  • Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication / Dillon, P.J., Molot, L.A. & M. Futter (19 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication

    Reference

    Dillon, P.J., Molot, L.A. & M. Futter (1997): The effect of El Niño-related drought on the recovery of acidified lakes. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 46: 105-111.

    Description

    Drought in wetlands. Stored reduced S in anoxic zones (wetlands) oxidized during drought, sulphate export rates after droughts high. Elevated sulphate concentrations in streams and lakes (in spite of decreased atmospheric sulphate deposition).

  • Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication / Freeman C., M.A. Lock & B. Reynolds (199 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication

    Reference

    Freeman C., M.A. Lock & B. Reynolds (1993): Climatic change and the release of immobilised nutrients from Welsh riparian wetland soils. Ecological Engineering 2(4): 367-373.

    Description

    Drought: Enhanced rates of release of chemicals in peat core. Potential for wetlands to release sequestered nutrients with drought stimulated by climate change.

  • Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication / Bridgham, S.D., K. Updegraff & J. Pastor ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Nutrients: decomposition, mineralisation, oxidation, release to lakes, rivers, eutrophication

    Reference

    Bridgham, S.D., K. Updegraff & J. Pastor (1998): Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus mineralization in northern wetlands. Ecology 79(5): 1545-1561.

    Description

    Mineralization of C, N, and P differed significantly among wetland types. On a volumetric basis, C and N mineralization increased in a predictable manner across the ombrotrophic-minerotrophic gradient, largely due to increasing soil bulk density, however, P mineralization per cubic centimeter remained relatively high in the bogs. Large differences in mineralization rates in northern wetland communities demonstrate that climate change models should not consider these areas as homogeneous entities. The common perception that more ombrotrophic sites are inherently more nutrient deficient needs to be reassessed.

  • Soil structure, soil energy fluxes / Zeeb, P.J. & H.F. Hemond (1998): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Soil structure, soil energy fluxes

    Reference

    Zeeb, P.J. & H.F. Hemond (1998): Hydrologic response of a wetland to changing moisture conditions: Modeling effects of soil heterogeneity. Climatic Change 40(2): 211-227.

    Description

    Precipitation: Wetland hydrology and flooding: Heterogeneity of soil type has effect on hydraulic flow, flow properties, hydraulic conductivity. Method for mapping soil heterogeneity and its implications for hydraulic conductance.

  • Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Tockner, K. & J.A. Stanford (2002): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Tockner, K. & J.A. Stanford (2002): Riverine flood plains: present state and future trends. Environmental Conservation 29(3): 308-330.

    Description

    Increased summer drying (mid-latitude continental interiors), more intensive precipitation events. Drought. A 3-4 °C climate warming is predicted to eliminate 85% of all remaining wetlands.

  • Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Rogers, C.E. & J.P. McCarty (2000): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Rogers, C.E. & J.P. McCarty (2000): Climate change and ecosystems of the Mid-Atlantic Region. Climate Research 14: 235-244.

    Description

    Wetland habitat loss, less potential in ameliorating negative effects of high streamflows and pollution runoff.

  • Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Dimitriou, E. & I. Zacharias (2005): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Dimitriou, E. & I. Zacharias (2005): Assessing the impacts of hydrometeorologic and land use changes in a large freshwater body. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 14(11): 1036-1045.

    Description

    Drought: Irrigation demands, decrease of wetland area. The results indicate that the observed decrease in the wetland area depends mainly on human activities and, therefore, there is an urgent need to develop and implement an integrated environmental management plan in the area.

  • Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning / Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Ja ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic incidators
    Indicator	Wetland extension, connectivity, functioning

    Reference

    Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Jacobs & J.H. Gentile (2005): Total system conceptual ecological model. Wetlands 25(4): 955-979.

    Description

    Three external drivers create stressors: 1. water management; 2. land-use management and development; 3. climate change and sea-level rise. Stressors include: loss of spatial extent; loss of connectivity; altered geomorphology and topography; Altered volume, timing, and distribution of regional hydropatterns; input of nutrients; altered fire patterns; and introduction and spread of exotic plants and animals. Ecological effects relate to hydroperiod and depth patterns, sheet flow, salinity gradients, nutrient status and dynamics, fire patterns, habitat availability, and marsh aquatic fauna prey bases. Key ecological indicators are identified.

• Abiotic indicators

  • Acidification: SO₄^2-flux (wetlands) / Aherne, J., Larssen, T., Cosby, B.J., Dillon, ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Abiotic indicators
    Indicator	Acidification: SO42-flux (wetlands)

    Reference

    Aherne, J., Larssen, T., Cosby, B.J., Dillon, P.J. (2006): Climate variability and forecasting surface water recovery from acidification: Modelling drought-induced sulphate release from wetlands. Science of the Total Environment 365: 186-199.

    Description

    Climate-induced drought events have been shown to have a significant influence on sulphate (SO₄^2-) export from forested catchments in central Ontario, subsequently delaying recovery of surface waters from acidification. Field and modelling studies have demonstrated that water table drawdown during drought periods promotes oxidation of previously stored (reduced) sulphur (S) compounds in wetlands, with subsequent efflux of SO₄^2- upon re-wetting. Although climate-induced changes in processes are generally not integrated into soil-acidification models, MAGIC (Model of Acidification of Groundwater in Catchments) includes a wetland compartment that incorporates redox processes driven by drought events. The potential confounding influence of climate-induced drought events on acidification recovery at Plastic Lake, south-central Ontario (under proposed future S emission reductions) was investigated using MAGIC and two climate scenarios: monthly precipitation and runoff based on long-term means (average-climate scenario), and variable precipitation and runoff based on the past 20 years of observed monthly data (variable-climate scenario). The variable-climate scenario included several periods of summer drought owing to lower than average rainfall and higher then average temperature. Nonetheless, long-term regional trends in precipitation and temperature suggest that the variable-climate scenario may be a conservative estimate of future climate. The average-climate scenario indicated good recovery potential with acid neutralising capacity (ANC) reaching approximately 40 μmolc L^-1 by 2020 and 50 μmolc L^-1 by 2080. In contrast, the forecasted recovery potential under the variable-climate scenario was very much reduced. By 2080, ANC was forecasted to increase to 2.6 μmolc L^-1 from − 10.0 μmolc L^-1 in 2000. Elevated SO4²− efflux following drought events (introduced under the variable-climate scenario) has a dramatic impact on simulated future surface water chemistry. The results clearly demonstrate that prediction of future water quality, using models such as MAGIC, should take into account changes or variability in climate as well as acid deposition.

• Early warning indicators

  • Water table, drought, hydrology / Johnson, W.C., S.E. Boettcher, K.A. Poiani &a ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Early warning indicators
    Indicator	Water table, drought, hydrology

    Reference

    Johnson, W.C., S.E. Boettcher, K.A. Poiani & G. Gunterspergen (2004): Influence Of Weather Extremes On The Water Levels Of Glaciated Prairie Wetlands. Wetlands 24(2): 385-398.

    Description

    Semi-permanent, seasonal and temporary wetlands differed sharply in water levels between dry and wet periods. Ground-water levels near semi-permanent wetlands more stable than those near temporary wetlands. Weather extremes drive the wetland cover cycle. Baseflow: The stream was fed by discharging shallow, anoxic groundwater without nitrogen and by deep, oxic groundwater with nitrogen (similar to 0-37 mg l^-1). Stormflow: near-surface runoff in the upper 30 cut soil layer bypassed the denitrifying zone and added significant amounts to the nitrogen load of the stream. Nitrate-nitrogen was close to 100% of deep groundwater and stream-water nitrogen concentration. Stream-water baseflow concentrations of nitrate, dissolved carbon and silica were about 1.6 mg l^-1, 4 mg l^-1 and 7.5 mg l^-1 respectively, and > 3 mg l^-1, > 10 mg l^-1 and < 4 mg l^-1 respectively during discharge peaks.

  • Water table, drought, hydrology / Bloczynski J.A., W.T. Bogart, B.F. Hobbs & ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Early warning indicators
    Indicator	Water table, drought, hydrology

    Reference

    Bloczynski J.A., W.T. Bogart, B.F. Hobbs & J.F Koonce (2000): Irreversible investment in wetlands preservation: Optimal ecosystem restoration under uncertainty. Environmental Management: 26(2): 175-193.

    Description

    Precipitation, flooding: Physical change of wetland due to lake level change. Lake volume and marginal wetland functioning. Model for management decisions when faced with long-term uncertainty of hydrology. Found to be less robust when modelling biological health.

  • Water table, drought, hydrology / Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Ja ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Early warning indicators
    Indicator	Water table, drought, hydrology

    Reference

    Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Jacobs & J.H. Gentile (2005): Total system conceptual ecological model. Wetlands 25(4): 955-979.

    Description

    Three external drivers create stressors: 1. water management; 2. land-use management and development; 3. climate change and sea-level rise. Stressors include: loss of spatial extent; loss of connectivity; altered geomorphology and topography; Altered volume, timing, and distribution of regional hydropatterns; input of nutrients; altered fire patterns; and introduction and spread of exotic plants and animals. Ecological effects relate to hydroperiod and depth patterns, sheet flow, salinity gradients, nutrient status and dynamics, fire patterns, habitat availability, and marsh aquatic fauna prey bases. Key ecological indicators are identified.

• Primary production: plants

  • Community change, diversity change / Mulhouse, J.M., D. De Steven, R.F. Lide & ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Community change, diversity change

    Reference

    Mulhouse, J.M., D. De Steven, R.F. Lide & R.R. Sharitz (2005): Effects of dominant species on vegetation change in Carolina bay wetlands following a multi-year drought. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 132(3): 411-420.

    Description

    Compared to grass/sedge marshes, pond/meadow wetlands acquired more species, particularly non-wetland species, during the drought. Pond/meadow wetlands: greater increases in the abundances of species that require unflooded conditions to establish. Prior to the drought, all wetlands were ponded almost continuously, but during drought the pond/meadow wetlands had shorter and more variable hydroperiods than the grass/sedge marshes. Thus, vegetation change may be partly confounded with hydrologic conditions that provide greater opportunities for species recruitment in pond/meadow bays. The results suggest that Carolina bay vegetation dynamics may differ as a function of dominant vegetation and climate-driven variation in wetland hydrologic condition.

  • Community change, diversity change / vanGroenendael, J.M., R.G. Roepers, I. Woltje ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Community change, diversity change

    Reference

    vanGroenendael, J.M., R.G. Roepers, I. Woltjer & H.R. Zweers (1996): Vegetation succession in lakes of west Connemara, Ireland: Comparing predicted and actual changes. Journal of Vegetation Science 7(2): 211-218.

    Description

    Vegetation dynamics stable on a regional scale but quite dynamic on a local scale. Continuous decline in species diversity, overall increase of phosphate level. However, only minor changes in vegetation could be attributed to this increase of phosphate. Major changes were a result of fluctuations in water level. These changes coincide with periods of drier and wetter climate. Because of the fluctuating nature of these changes, predicted vegetation change did deviate from the observed change.

  • Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change / Wieder R.K. & J.B. Yavitt (1994): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change

    Reference

    Wieder R.K. & J.B. Yavitt (1994): Peatlands and global climate change – insights from comparative studies of sites situated along a latitudinal gradient. Wetlands 14(3): 229-238.

    Description

    Latitude effect: CH₄ emissions; Sphagnum growth rate. Photosynthesis effect: carbon emissions from peatland soils. Productivity, biomass effect: rate of growth; C emissions. Use of wetland ecosystems at different latitude to assess potential changes under climate change.

  • Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change, species distribution / Middleton, B.A. & K.L. McKee (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change, species distribution

    Reference

    Middleton, B.A. & K.L. McKee (2004): Use of a latitudinal gradient in bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) production to examine controls of biotic boundaries and potential responses to environmental change. Global Ecology and Biogeography 13: 247-258.

    Description

    Changing temperature with latitudinal gradient determins distribution of Taxodium distichum. Litterfall rates follow bell shaped curve, production more limited at distributional boundaries. Future changes in global temperature would affect litter production in nonlinear manner. Local changes in hydrology may interact with climate change further and reduce litter production particularly at lower latitudes.

  • Loss of native species, exotic species increase / Davidson, E.A. & P. Artaxo (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Loss of native species, exotic species increase

    Reference

    Davidson, E.A. & P. Artaxo (2004): Globally significant changes in biological processes of the Amazon Basin: results of the large-scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment. Global Change Biology 10: 519-529.

    Description

    Abiotic incidators:Reduced precipitation. Drought, reduced evapo-transpiration, increased fire susceptability, decreased leaf area, feedback on evapo-transpiration. Change in ratio of annual sinks of atmospheric carbon dioxide (intact forest) to annual sources of atmospheric methane and nitrous oxide (wetlands). Amazonian forest-river system currently nearly balanced in terms of the net 100-year global warming potential of these gases.

    Primary Production: Plants Drought: Proportional loss of native species and influx of invasives; move towards dicotyledonous species. Drought and fire may increase in frequency and severity because of global warming. Two years after burns and transplantations upslope, dicotyledonous species' density and richness increased 3- to 36-fold on soil blocks moved upslope to the driest vegetation zone relative to unmoved soil blocks. Eurasian species, Sonchus arvensis and Cirsium arvense, increased 5- to 13-fold after drought treatment. Fire, particularly the deepest burn, reduced graminoid density and height up to 90%. It is hypothesized that, under climate change conditions, Eurasian species might dominate early successional communities in mid-boreal wetlands.

  • Loss of native species, exotic species increase / Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Ja ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Loss of native species, exotic species increase

    Reference

    Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Jacobs & J.H. Gentile (2005): Total system conceptual ecological model. Wetlands 25(4): 955-979.

    Description

    Three external drivers create stressors: 1. water management; 2. land-use management and development; 3. climate change and sea-level rise. Stressors include: loss of spatial extent; loss of connectivity; altered geomorphology and topography; Altered volume, timing, and distribution of regional hydropatterns; input of nutrients; altered fire patterns; and introduction and spread of exotic plants and animals. Ecological effects relate to hydroperiod and depth patterns, sheet flow, salinity gradients, nutrient status and dynamics, fire patterns, habitat availability, and marsh aquatic fauna prey bases. Key ecological indicators are identified.

  • Loss of native species, exotic species increase / Wei, A.H. & P. Chow-Fraser (2006): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Loss of native species, exotic species increase

    Reference

    Wei, A.H. & P. Chow-Fraser (2006): Synergistic impact of water level fluctuation and invasion of Glyceria on Typha in a freshwater marsh of Lake Ontario. Aquatic Botany 84(1): 63-69.

    Description

    Native Typha latifolia vs. Exotic Glyceria maxima, invasive Phragmites australis: Water level fluctuation was the major natural disturbance and it alone accounted for 88% of the variation in Typha. After partitioning out the effect of water level, both human population growth and the presence of exotic species were still significantly related to the decline of native Typha. We suggest that multiple stressors interact with each other to influence changes in native Typha community and cause greater detrimental impact. An important implication of our results is that projected water level decline due to climate change may not necessarily favor the restoration of a desirable native marsh because of the presence of other disturbances such as exotic and invasive species and altered nutrient regime.

  • Loss of native species, exotic species increase, riparian vegetation change, growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change / Carpenter, S.R., S.G. Fisher, N.B. Grimm & ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Loss of native species, exotic species increase, riparian vegetation change, growth rate, productivity, root density, decomposition change

    Reference

    Carpenter, S.R., S.G. Fisher, N.B. Grimm & J.F. Kitchell (1992): Global change and freshwater ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23: 119-139.

    Description

    Altered riparian vegetation (herbal vegetation and trees), and altered biomass and productivity, exotic species. Effect on detrivores: Slowed decomposition. Altered aquatic communities.

  • Sensitivity depending on plant traits and niche properties / Thuiller, W., S. Lavorel & M.B Araujo (20 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Primary production: plants
    Indicator	Sensitivity depending on plant traits and niche properties

    Reference

    Thuiller, W., S. Lavorel & M.B Araujo (2005): Niche properties and geographical extent as predictors of species sensitivity to climate change. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 14(4): 347-357.

    Description

    Niche properties are a good indicator of species sensitivities to climate change. Review of temperature effects on niche as indicators of potential species survival. Macrophytes: emissons of CH₄. Direct link between coverage of macrophytes and ebullition of CH₄.

• Secondary production - fish

  • Fish distribution, richness, abundance change / Schindler, D.W. (2001): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Secondary production - fish
    Indicator	Fish distribution, richness, abundance change

    Reference

    Schindler, D.W. (2001): The cumulative effects of climate warming and other human stresses on Canadian freshwaters in the new millennium. Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58: 18-29.

    Description

    Increased draught, weaker spring flows, less inundation. Leads to disappearing wetlands. Demise of fisheries, of waterfowl and muskrat populations.

• Secondary production - invertebrates

  • Species distribution, richness, abundance change / Thomas, J.A. (2005): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Secondary production - invertebrates
    Indicator	Species distribution, richness, abundance change

    Reference

    Thomas, J.A. (2005): Monitoring change in the abundance and distribution of insects using butterflies and other indicator groups. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society - Biological Sciences 360(1454): 339-357.

    Description

    General review, includes aquatic habitats. Assessment of the use of species monitoring, especially butterflies, for detection of ecosystem change, including climate change.

  • Species distribution, richness, abundance change / Nyman, M., A. Korhola & S.J. Brooks (2005 ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Secondary production - invertebrates
    Indicator	Species distribution, richness, abundance change

    Reference

    Nyman, M., A. Korhola & S.J. Brooks (2005): The distribution and diversity of Chironomidae (Insecta : Diptera) in western Finnish Lapland, with special emphasis on shallow lakes. Global Ecology and Biogeography 14(2): 137-153.

    Description

    Study linking chironomid data to sediment organic content, total organic carbon, pH, and lake-specific air temperature. Maximum taxon richness occurred where aquatic algae reached their maximum diversity. Our study demonstrates that the factors most strongly affecting chironomids in Finnish Lapland (i.e. temperature, and ecosystem features) are those that with great probability will also change as a result of future climate change.

• Susceptibility ecosystem

  • Groundwater / Johnson, W.C., S.E. Boettcher, K.A. Poiani &a ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Groundwater

    Reference

    Johnson, W.C., S.E. Boettcher, K.A. Poiani & G. Gunterspergen (2004): Influence Of Weather Extremes On The Water Levels Of Glaciated Prairie Wetlands. Wetlands 24(2): 385-398.

    Description

    Semi-permanent, seasonal and temporary wetlands differed sharply in water levels between dry and wet periods. Ground-water levels near semi-permanent wetlands more stable than those near temporary wetlands. Weather extremes drive the wetland cover cycle. Baseflow: The stream was fed by discharging shallow, anoxic groundwater without nitrogen and by deep, oxic groundwater with nitrogen (similar to 0-37 mg l^-1). Stormflow: near-surface runoff in the upper 30 cut soil layer bypassed the denitrifying zone and added significant amounts to the nitrogen load of the stream. Nitrate-nitrogen was close to 100% of deep groundwater and stream-water nitrogen concentration. Stream-water baseflow concentrations of nitrate, dissolved carbon and silica were about 1.6 mg l^-1, 4 mg l^-1 and 7.5 mg l^-1 respectively, and > 3 mg l^-1, > 10 mg l^-1 and < 4 mg l^-1 respectively during discharge peaks.

  • Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase) / Brinson, M.M. & A.I. Malvarez (2002): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase)

    Reference

    Brinson, M.M. & A.I. Malvarez (2002): Temperate freshwater wetlands: types, status, and threats. Environmental Conservation 29(2): 115-133.

    Description

    Temperature effect: Water abstractions. Review of a range of impacts on different wetland types. One trend is that the more industrialised countries are likely to conserve their already impacted, remaining wetlands, while nations with less industrialisation are now experiencing accelerated losses, and may continue to do so for the next several decades.

  • Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase) / Dimitriou, E. & I. Zacharias (2005): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase)

    Reference

    Dimitriou, E. & I. Zacharias (2005): Assessing the impacts of hydrometeorologic and land use changes in a large freshwater body. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 14(11): 1036-1045.

    Description

    Drought: Irrigation demands, decrease of wetland area. The results indicate that the observed decrease in the wetland area depends mainly on human activities and, therefore, there is an urgent need to develop and implement an integrated environmental management plan in the area.

  • Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase) / Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Ja ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase)

    Reference

    Ogden, J.C., S.M. Davis, T.K. Barnes, K.J. Jacobs & J.H. Gentile (2005): Total system conceptual ecological model. Wetlands 25(4): 955-979.

    Description

    Three external drivers create stressors: 1. water management; 2. land-use management and development; 3. climate change and sea-level rise. Stressors include: loss of spatial extent; loss of connectivity; altered geomorphology and topography; Altered volume, timing, and distribution of regional hydropatterns; input of nutrients; altered fire patterns; and introduction and spread of exotic plants and animals. Ecological effects relate to hydroperiod and depth patterns, sheet flow, salinity gradients, nutrient status and dynamics, fire patterns, habitat availability, and marsh aquatic fauna prey bases. Key ecological indicators are identified.

  • Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase) / Shirley, L.J. & L.L. Battaglia (2006): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase)

    Reference

    Shirley, L.J. & L.L. Battaglia (2006): Assessing vegetation change in coastal landscapes of the Northern Gulf of Mexico. Wetlands 26(4): 1057-1070.

    Description

    1050-90: prevalent marsh loss. Rate and type of marsh conversion to other land-cover types varied: converted to open water along shorelines and in internal patches, the majority: scrub-shrub encroachment. Main trend in the Coastal Plain: replacement of agricultural areas by forest. The buffers experienced an increase in anthropogenically-modified categories, except for a decrease in agricultural areas. Landward and seaward losses, marsh areas are especially vulnerable. It appears that marshes are not keeping pace with the spatial shifts in the aquatic to terrestrial transition as sea level rises, although results in the Coastal Plain are less conclusive because major land-use changes dominate the trends.

  • Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase) / Wei, A.H. & P. Chow-Fraser (2006): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Land use (e.g. water abstraction increase)

    Reference

    Wei, A.H. & P. Chow-Fraser (2006): Synergistic impact of water level fluctuation and invasion of Glyceria on Typha in a freshwater marsh of Lake Ontario. Aquatic Botany 84(1): 63-69.

    Description

    Native Typha latifolia vs. Exotic Glyceria maxima, invasive Phragmites australis: Water level fluctuation was the major natural disturbance and it alone accounted for 88% of the variation in Typha. After partitioning out the effect of water level, both human population growth and the presence of exotic species were still significantly related to the decline of native Typha. We suggest that multiple stressors interact with each other to influence changes in native Typha community and cause greater detrimental impact. An important implication of our results is that projected water level decline due to climate change may not necessarily favor the restoration of a desirable native marsh because of the presence of other disturbances such as exotic and invasive species and altered nutrient regime.

  • Soil type / Zeeb, P.J. & H.F. Hemond (1998): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Soil type

    Reference

    Zeeb, P.J. & H.F. Hemond (1998): Hydrologic response of a wetland to changing moisture conditions: Modeling effects of soil heterogeneity. Climatic Change 40(2): 211-227.

    Description

    Precipitation: Wetland hydrology and flooding: Heterogeneity of soil type has effect on hydraulic flow, flow properties, hydraulic conductivity. Method for mapping soil heterogeneity and its implications for hydraulic conductance.

  • Soil type / Bridgham, S.D., K. Updegraff & J. Pastor ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Susceptibility ecosystem
    Indicator	Soil type

    Reference

    Bridgham, S.D., K. Updegraff & J. Pastor (1998): Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus mineralization in northern wetlands. Ecology 79(5): 1545-1561.

    Description

    Mineralization of C, N, and P differed significantly among wetland types. On a volumetric basis, C and N mineralization increased in a predictable manner across the ombrotrophic-minerotrophic gradient, largely due to increasing soil bulk density, however, P mineralization per cubic centimeter remained relatively high in the bogs. Large differences in mineralization rates in northern wetland communities demonstrate that climate change models should not consider these areas as homogeneous entities. The common perception that more ombrotrophic sites are inherently more nutrient deficient needs to be reassessed.

• Vertebrates

  • Amphibians: no major effect (except distribution depends on wetland extension) / Diamond, S.A., G.S. Peterson, J.E. Tietge &am ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Amphibians: no major effect (except distribution depends on wetland extension)

    Reference

    Diamond, S.A., G.S. Peterson, J.E. Tietge & G.T. Ankley (2002): Assessment of the risk of solar ultraviolet radiation to amphibians. III. Prediction of impacts in selected northern midwestern wetlands. Environmental Science & Technology 36(13): 2866-2874.

    Description

    Variation in ultraviolet solar radiation (UVB 280-320 nm): Amphibians: Risk of mortality and malformations due to solar radiation currently low for majority of wetlands evaluated. (Rana pipiens, R. clamitans, R. septentrionalis).

  • Amphibians: no major effect (except distribution depends on wetlandl extension) / Freidenburg, L.K. & D.K. Skelly (2004): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Amphibians: no major effect (except distribution depends on wetlandl extension)

    Reference

    Freidenburg, L.K. & D.K. Skelly (2004): Microgeographical variation in thermal preference by an amphibian. Ecology Letters 7: 369-373.

    Description

    Temperature effect on egg masses of Rana sylvatica from heavily shaded to open wetland ponds. Experimental temperature gradients in troughs. Localized selection leading to countergradient patterns of thermal preference behaviour: Larvae from closed canopy ponds are more strongly temperature selective and prefer higher temperatures than conspecifics from populations of open canopy ponds. In modelling responses of animals to climate change it should be accounted for rapid behavioral evolution.

  • Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution / Schindler, D.W. (2001): ...

    Climate Region	temperate
    Ecosystem type	lakeside
    Parameter group	Vertebrates
    Indicator	Birds: migration, timing, range, distribution

    Reference

    Schindler, D.W. (2001): The cumulative effects of climate warming and other human stresses on Canadian freshwaters in the new millennium. Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58: 18-29.

    Description

    Increased draught, weaker spring flows, less inundation. Leads to disappearing wetlands. Demise of fisheries, of waterfowl and muskrat populations.