Lakes in temperate ecoregions
– Indicators for Climate Change Impacts –
Interactions between Climate Change, other stressors and the biota are complex. What are the main impacts? Which simple parameters are suited to detect them?
Here we suggest indicators, which reflect the main effects of Climate Change on freshwater ecosystems.
Within the Euro-Limpacs consortium there is an ongoing discussion about the best suited indicators. On this page you find a first selection, which will frequently be updated and improved within 2008.
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Biological parameters
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Water temperature effects on fish
Climate Region Temperate Ecosystem type Shallow lakes Stressor type Temperature Responding parameter group Biological parameters Responding parameter Water temperature effects on fish Response description
Higher water temperatures (especially in the epilimnion) lead to the progressively reduction of thermal habitats for e.g. Salvelinus namaycush. As a result, cold water species will disappear from littoral areas in spring and summmer.
Specification of relevant ecosystem type
Relevant for all small lakes in temperate ecoregions.
Relevant ecoregion(s) according to Illies
Central (14) and Eastern Lowlands (16), UK (18), Carpathian (10), Central and Western Mountains (8 and 9)
Suggested indicator
Summer water temperature or air temperature
Justification of indicator
Water temperature is easy to measure, but even air temperature reflects warming up of mixed layer temperature, since increases in mean mixed layer temperatures correspond to 85% of increases in air temperatures.
Reference(s)
Jansen, W. & R.H. Hesslein (2004): Potential effects of climate warming on fish habitats in temperate zone lakes with special reference to Lake 239 of the experimental lakes area (ELA), north-western Ontario. Environmental Biology of Fish 70: 1-22.
Minns, C.K. & J.E. Moore (1995): Factors limiting the distributions of Ontario´s freshwater fishes: the role of climate and other variables, and the potential impacts of climate change. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Special Publications 121: 137-160.
DeStasio, B. T., D. K. Hill, J. M. Kleinhans, N. P. Nibbelink & J. J. Magnuson (1996): Potential effects of global climate change on small north-temperate lakes: Physics, fish and plankton. Limnology and Oceanography 41(5): 1136-1149. -
Water temperature effects on food webs
Climate Region Temperate Ecosystem type Shallow lakes Stressor type Temperature Responding parameter group Biological parameters Responding parameter Water temperature effects on food webs Response description
Increased water temperature generates principal shifts in food webs. As cyprinid planktivorous fish species are supported, large zooplankton species are suppressed and grazing intensity is reduced.
Secondary effects
Following reduced grazing intensity, phytoplankton density increases, thus leading to effects similar to eutrophication.
Specification of relevant ecosystem type
Most pronounced in shallow lakes
Relevant ecoregion(s) according to Illies
Central (14) and Eastern Lowlands (16), UK (18)
Suggested indicator
Proportion of planktivorous and piscivorous fish species; ; proportion of large and small zooplankton species
Justification of indicator
Food web structure is well reflected by these two parameters. The share of large zooplankton species determines the effects on phytoplankton, the share of planktivorous species determines the effects on zooplankton.
Reference(s)
Petchey, O. L., P. T. McPhearson, T. M. Casey & P. J. Morin (1999): Environmental warming alters food-web structure and ecosystem function. Nature 402: 69-72.
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Water temperature effects on macrophytes
Climate Region Temperate Ecosystem type Shallow lakes Stressor type Temperature Responding parameter group Biological parameters Responding parameter Water temperature effects on macrophytes Response description
Inter-annual variation in water temperature, especially early season warm temperatures, result in deeper macrophyte colonisation, greater wet weight biomass, and an increase in whole lake biomass.
Specification of relevant ecosystem type
Most pronounced in eutrophic shallow lakes.
Relevant ecoregion(s) according to Illies
Central (14) and Eastern Lowlands (16), UK (18), Carpathian (10), Central and Western Mountains (8 and 9)
Suggested indicator
Water temperature
Justification of indicator
The parameter is easy to record and often incorporated into routine monitoring programmes.
Reference(s)
Rooney, N. & J. Kalff (2000): Inter-annual variation in submerged macrophyte community biomass and distribution: the influence of temperature and lake morphometry. Aquatic Botany 68: 321-335.
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Water temperature effects on phytoplankton
Climate Region Temperate Ecosystem type Shallow lakes Stressor type Temperature Responding parameter group Biological parameters Responding parameter Water temperature effects on phytoplankton Response description
Increasing water temperatures lead to increased relative abundance of diatoms, but also to even higher early summer bacterial biomass with subsequently shift from a dominance of diatoms and cryptophtes to cyanbacteria. This effect is especially pronounced at temperatures > 20°C, since cyanobacteria (especially large, filamentous) and green algae are favoured at higher temperatures.
Secondary effects
Higher temperatures and shift in phytoplankton community composition leads to higher probability of cyanobacteria blooms with subsequent oxygen depletion in the hypolimnion and effects on zooplankton and benthic fauna.
Specification of relevant ecosystem type
Effect might be strongest in shallow and/or eutrophic lakes with anoxic hypolimnia.
Relevant ecoregion(s) according to Illies
Central (14) and Eastern Lowlands (16), UK (18), Carpathian (10), Central and Western Mountains (8 and 9)
Suggested indicator
Phytoplankton biomass and composition, cyanobacterial algal blooms.
Justification of indicator
The shift in community composition gives information about the response of biota to changed lake characteristics as water temperatures. Phytoplankton community composition is routinely monitored for the Water Framework Directive.
Reference(s)
Weyhenmeyer, G. A., R. Adrian, U. Gaedke, D. M. Livingstone & S. C. Maberly (2002): Response of phytoplankton in European lakes to a change in the North Atlantic Oscillation. Verhandlungen Internationale Vereinigung Limnologie 28: 1436-1439.
Straile, A. & R. Adrian (2000): The North Atlantic Oscillation and plankton dynamics in two European lakes - two variations on a general theme. Global Change Biology 6: 663-670. -
Water temperature effects on zooplankton
Climate Region Temperate Ecosystem type Shallow lakes Stressor type Temperature Responding parameter group Biological parameters Responding parameter Water temperature effects on zooplankton Response description
Higher water temperature leads to shifts in zooplankton community composition. Higher, earlier population growth rates of Daphnia and earlier summer decline occurs due to higher spring temperatures. As a result, higher Daphnia biomass leads to earlier phytoplankton suppression and a shift from a dominance of large-bodied to smaller species.
Secondary effects
Shifts in zooplankton composition and suppressed phytoplankton growth leads to earlier clear water phase. Furthermore, changed phytoplankton dynamics have effects on food-web interactions.
Relevant ecoregion(s) according to Illies
Central (14) and Eastern Lowlands (16), UK (18), Carpathian (10), Central and Western Mountains (8 and 9)
Suggested indicator
Zooplankton biomass and composition.
Justification of indicator
The response of zooplankton might be a good indicator for changes food-web dynamics due to temperature increase.
Reference(s)
Chen, C.Y. & C.L. Folt (1996): Consequences of fall warming for zooplankton overwintering success. Limnology and Oceanography 41: 1077-1086.
Straile, D. (2000): Meteorological forcing of plankton dynamics in a large and deep continental European lake. Oecologia 122: 44-50.
Adrian, R., R. Deneke (1996): Possible impact of mild winters on zooplankton succession in eutrophic lakes of the Atlantic European area. Freshwater Biology 36: 757-770.
Moore, M. V., C. L. Folt & R. S. Stemberger (1996): Consequences of elevated temperatures for zooplankton assemblages in temperate lakes. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie 135(3): 289-319.
MacFadyen, E. J., C. E. Williamson, G. Grad, M. Lowery, W. H. Jeffrey & D. L. Mitchell (2004): Molecular response to climate change: temperature dependence of UV-induced DNA damage and repair in freshwater crustacean Daphnia pulicaria. Global Change Biology 10: 408-416.
Straile, D. (2002): North Atlantic Oscillation synchronizes food-web interactions in central European lakes. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 269: 391-395.
Straile, A. & R. Adrian (2000): The North Atlantic Oscillation and plankton dynamics in two European lakes - two variations on a general theme. Global Change Biology 6: 663-670.
Mehner, T. (2000): Influence of spring warming on the predation rate of underyearling fish on Daphnia? A deterministic simulation approach. Freshwater Biology 45: 253-263.
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Hydromorphological parameters
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Catchment processes: mineralisation, weathering
Climate Region Temperate Ecosystem type Shallow lakes Stressor type Precipitation Responding parameter group Hydromorphological parameters Responding parameter Catchment processes: mineralisation, weathering Response description
Increase of precipitation leads to higher adsorption of marine Na, Mg, SO4 on soil exchange sites with associated displacement of non-marine cations such as Ca, labile Al, and H+.
Secondary effects
Monitored trends of acidity indicators as Al, H+, SO4 may be confounded with long-term responses to climatic variability at sites with marine influence.
Relevant ecoregion(s) according to Illies
Central (14) and Eastern Lowlands (16), UK (18)
Suggested indicator
Acidity indicators such as Al, H+
Justification of indicator
These parameters are easy to record and often incorporated in routine water chemistry monitoring.
Reference(s)
Evans, C.D., D.T. Monteith & R. Harriman (2001): Long-term variability in the deposition of marine ions at west coast sites in the UK Acid Waters Monitoring Network: impacts on surface water chemistry and significance for trend determination. Science of the Total Environment 265: 115-129.
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Ice cover
Climate Region Temperate Ecosystem type Shallow lakes Stressor type Temperature Responding parameter group Hydromorphological parameters Responding parameter Ice cover Response description
Higher air and thus higher water temperature leads to a shorter ice cover period and to an earlier ice-breakup. The relationship between air temperature and timing of lake ice-breakup shows an arc cosine function. This nonlinearity results in marked differences in the response of ice-breakup timing to changes in air temperature between colder and warmer regions. Furthermore, there is thinner ice and snow cover due to elevated air and water temperature.
Secondary effects
Shorter ice cover periods and earlier ice-breakup results in thermal instability and also in changes of food-web dynamics. Earlier ice-breakup results in earlier phytoplankton growth and thus earlier clearwater timing. Thinner ice and snow cover favours phytoplankton growth in winter below ice resulting in increasing chlorophyll levels.
Relevant ecoregion(s) according to Illies
Central (14) and Eastern Lowlands (16), UK (18), Carpathian (10), Central and Western Mountains (8 and 9)
Suggested indicator
Ice cover duration, timing of ice-breakup, ice thickness.
Justification of indicator
Ice cover duration is simple to monitor, e.g. by remote sensing.
Reference(s)
Scheffer, M., D. Straile, E.H. van Nes, H. Hosper (2001): Climatic warming causes regime shifts in lake food webs. Limnology and Oceanography 46(7): 1780-1783.
Gerten, D., R. Adrian (2000): Climate-driven changes in spring plankton dynamics and the sensitivity of shallow polymictic lakes to the North Atlantic Oscillation. Limnology and Oceanography 45(5): 1058-1066.
DeStasio, B. T., D. K. Hill, J. M. Kleinhans, N. P. Nibbelink & J. J. Magnuson (1996): Potential effects of global climate change on small north-temperate lakes: Physics, fish and plankton. Limnology and Oceanography 41(5): 1136-1149.
Magnuson, J.J., K.E. Webster, R.A. Assel, C.J. Bowser, P.J. Dillon, J.G. Eaton, H.E. Evans, E.J. Fee, R.I. Hall, L.R. Mortsch, D.W. Schindler & F.H.Quinn (1997): Potential effects of climate changes on aquatic systems: Laurentian Great Lakes and Precambrian Shield regions. Hydrological Processes 11: 825-871.
Weyhenmeyer, G.A., M. Meili, D.M. Livingstone (2004): Non-linear response of ice-breakup. Geophysical Research Letters 31(7): 1-4. -
Stratification
Climate Region Temperate Ecosystem type Shallow lakes Stressor type Temperature Responding parameter group Hydromorphological parameters Responding parameter Stratification Response description
Higher temperatures result in earlier onset and prolongation of summer stratification. As a result, changing mixing processes occur and systems may change from dimictic to warm monomictic. A lack of full turnover in winter might lead to a permanent thermocline in deeper regions (below shallow seasonal thermocline).
Secondary effects
Changes in mixing processes lead to decreased nutrients entrainment. Less intense mixing and increased thermal stability result in oxygen depletion in deeper regions with subsequently phosphate and ammonium (i.e. nutrients in general) release from the sediment. Anoxia in the hypolimnion leads to benthic species extinctions, especially sensitive chironomids. Nutrient (N, P) availability leads to eutrophication with several effects such as increased algae growth, (further) oxygen depletion during night times, extinction of sensitive species such as brown trout (Salmo trutta).
Relevant ecoregion(s) according to Illies
Central (14) and Eastern Lowlands (16), UK (18), Carpathian (10), Central and Western Mountains (8 and 9)
Suggested indicator
Duration of summer stratification as reflected by water temperature
Justification of indicator
Water temperature well reflect the status of lake stratification.
Reference(s)
George, D.G. (2000): The impact of regional-scale changes in the weather on the long-term dynamics of Eudiaptomus and Daphnia in Esthwaite Water, Cumbria. Freshwater Biology 45: 111-121.
George, D. G. & D. P. Harris (1985): The effect of climate on long-term changes in the crustacean zooplankton biomass of Lake Windermere, UK. Nature 316: 536-539.
Hauer, F.R., J.S. Baron, D.H. Campbell, K.D. Fausch, S.W. Hostetler, G.H.Leavesley, P.R. Leavitt, D.M. Macknight & J.A. Stanford (1997): Assessment of climate change and freshwater ecosystems of the Rocky Mountains, USA and Canada. Hydrological Processes 11: 903-924.
Adrian, R., R. Deneke, U. Mischke, R. Stellmacher & P. Lederer (1995): A long-term study of the Heiligensee (1975-1992). Evidence for effects of climatic change on the dynamics of eutrophied lake ecosystems. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie 133(3): 315-337.
Mueller-Navarra, D.C., S. Güss & H. von Storch (1997): Interannual variability of seasonal succession events in a temperate lake and its relation to temperature variability. Global Change Biology 3: 429-438.
Gerten, D. & R. Adrian (2001): Differences in the persistency of the North Atlantic Oscillation signal among lakes. Limnology and Ocenaography 46(2): 448-455.
George D.G., D.P. Hewitt, J.G.W. Lund & W.J.P. Smyly (1990): The relative effects of enrichment and climate change on the long-term dynamics of Daphnia in Eathwaite Water, Cumbria. Freshwater Biology 23: 55-70.
McCormick, M.J. (1990): Potential changes in thermal structure and cycle of Lake Michigan due to global warming. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 119: 183-194.
Adrian, R., R. Deneke, U. Mischke, R. Stellmacher & P. Lederer (1995): A long-term study of the Heiligensee (1975-1992). Evidence for effects of climatic change on the dynamics of eutrophied lake ecosystems. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie 133(3): 315-337.
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Physico-chemical parameters
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Aluminium
Climate Region Temperate Ecosystem type Shallow lakes Stressor type Temperature Responding parameter group Physico-chemical parameters Responding parameter Aluminium Response description
Increasing temperature leads to a decrease of total Al and Al3+ concentrations in lakes. The inverse relationship between temperature and solubility results in lower mobilisation and/or enhanced precipitation.
Secondary effects
Decreased Al levels might benefit recovery process and mitigate fish extinction during acid peaks in spring melt.
Specification of relevant ecosystem type
Limited to lakes with silicious catchments prone to acidification (few mountain ranges in temperate European regions)
Relevant ecoregion(s) according to Illies
Carpathian (10), Western and Central Mountains (8 and 9)
Suggested indicator
Acidity indicators such as Al, H+
Justification of indicator
These parameters are easy to record and often incorporated into routine water chemistry monitoring.
Reference(s)
Vesel, J., V. Majer, J. Kopácek, S.A. Norton (2003): Increasing temperature decreases aluminum concentrations in Central European lakes recovering from acidification. Limnology and Ocenaography 48(6): 2346-2354.
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DOC
Climate Region Temperate Ecosystem type Shallow lakes Stressor type Temperature Responding parameter group Physico-chemical parameters Responding parameter DOC Response description
Rising temperatures in combination with declining acid deposition cause increasing DOC concentrations.
Secondary effects
Increasing DOC and water colour may have impacts on freshwater biota and drinking water quality. E.g. increasing water colour might change light availability and thus primary production.
Relevant ecoregion(s) according to Illies
Central (14) and Eastern Lowlands (16), UK (18)
Suggested indicator
DOC
Justification of indicator
Incorporated into routine water quality monitoring
Reference(s)
Evans, C.D., D-T. Monteith, D.M. Cooper (2005): Long-term increases in surface water dissolved organic carbon: Observations, possible causes and environmental impacts. Environmental Pollution 137(1): 55-71.
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Sulphate concentration
Climate Region Temperate Ecosystem type Shallow lakes Stressor type Precipitation Responding parameter group Physico-chemical parameters Responding parameter Sulphate concentration Response description
With less precipitation in El Nino- years and resulting droughts, stored reduced S in anoxic zones (wetlands) are oxidised during drought, with subsequently high sulphate export rates after droughts. Elevated sulphate concentrations in lakes (in spite of decreased atmospheric sulphate) will be the results. Sulphate concentrations in lakes are strongly predicted by regional/global scale climate indices (SOI, ENSO) and sulphate deposition indices. Large-scale climate factors play a major role in determining the response of lakes to sulphate deposition and recovery.
Secondary effects
Elevated sulphate concentration confounds recovery of lake ecosystems from acidification.
Specification of relevant ecosystem type
Limited to lakes with silicious catchments prone to acidification (few mountain ranges in temperate European regions)
Relevant ecoregion(s) according to Illies
Central (14) and Eastern Lowlands (16), UK (18)
Suggested indicator
Sulphate concentration
Justification of indicator
; Directly reflecting the responding parameter; Often incorporated into routine water quality monitoring
Reference(s)
Dillon, P.J., L.A. Molot & M. Futter (1997): The effect of El Nino-related drought on the recovery of acidified lakes. Environmental Monitoring & Assessment 46: 105-111.
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